LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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SEP 



SCHOOL DEVICES 

A BOOK OF 

IV AYS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR 
TEACHERS 



V /y{ EDWARD R. SHAW 

- ■^ ^ "" 0/ike High School, Yonkers, N. V. 



WEBB.pONNELL 

0/ Washington Academy, East Machias, Me, 




NEW YORK 
E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 

1886 



LBISSS 
.6i 



Copyright, 1886, by 
Edward R. Shaw, 

AND 

Webb Donnell. 



PREFACE, 



This book has been prepared with the object of 
presenting in compact form a great number of devices 
for bringing freshness and life into the school-room. 

Unless great vigilance is exercised, monotony creeps 
in, and becomes the depressing accompaniment of 
school work. No worker needs more of invention 
than the teacher, yet no other worker has an envi- 
ronment that is so hostUe to its development. The 
teacher is reaching down continually to minds below 

him. Day after day spent under these conditions 
clogs invention. 

In recognition of this fact, the great body of progres- 
sive teachers seek to take advantage of the best 
experience of others, adapting to their own needs 
whatever may be deemed sviited thereto. In confir- 
mation of this, we point to the great number who are 
subscribers to school periodicals for the express pur- 
pose of obtaining new suggestions which they may 
apply in their own school-rooms. But a school journal 
must cover the whole range of educational work, and, 
therefore, the sj)ace devoted to devices must of neces- 



4 PREFACE. 

sity be limited. This book aims to supplement the 
work of the papers by placing in convenient form, for 
constant use at the teacher's desk, the result of much 
experience in making the work of the school-room 
effective and attractive. 

While the device is of undoubted advantage in school 
work, it is important to consider its relative position 
as a factor in education. Some teachers, in their 
efforts to secure attention and make their work at- 
tractive, have unfortunately lost sight of the proper 
balance that should be maintained between that which 
is novel and the fundamental principles which under 
lie all teaching ; and have come to believe, erroneously, 
that good teaching requires one to be continually seek- 
ing for new and striking ways in which to present 
ideas, substituting brilliancy and variety for the pains- 
taking drill which the majority of teachers find essen- 
tial to success in their work. A device should be used 
as a condiment to add spice to the constant iteration 
and reiteration of first principles. 

In addition, however, to that which is to be regarded 
as partaking purely of the character of a device, there 
will be found in the book a great number of ways and 
snggestions which will be of especial advantage to 
those who are just entering upon the woi-k of teaching. 
These, having had no previous experience, must rely 
to a great extent on that of others. While the idea of 
teaching by any given formula is not to be advocated , 
yet it is believed that in a multitude of suggestions 
for accomplishing a given result, the teacher can 



PREFACE 5 

select that which seems best suited to his own 
needs. 

We have inserted a large number of devices upon 
many topics, not with the idea that they should all be 
used in any particular case, but to afford a wide range 
for selection. 

While the greater part of the book is fresh and 
original, having been gathered from our own experi- 
ence and from the experience of many other teachers 
whose work has fallen under our observation, we take 
pleasure in giving credit to the numerous school peri- 
odicals of the country from Avhose pages we have 
drawn devices which seemed worthy of permanent 
preservation. In most instances, whatever has been 
selected has been recast to adapt it more fully to our 
use. 

YoNKERS, N. Y., May, 1886. 



IBooks for Live Teachers. 

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CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

FACE 

Language 9 

CHAPTER II. 
Geography „ , . 35 

CHAPTER III. 
Spelling , , 47 

CHAPTER IV. 
Reading , . , « , 54 

CHAPTER V. 
Arithmetic 63 

CHAPTER VI. 
Personal Suggestions 91 

CHAPTER VII. 
Schoolroom Suggestions 100 



8 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

PAGE 

Outside the Schoolroom 125 

CHAPTER IX. 
History 131 

CHAPTER X. 
Physiology 144 

CHAPTER XI. 
Seat-work 154 

CHAPTER XII. 
Drawing 163 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Penraanship and Apparatus 176 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Bible Readings » . . 184 



School Devices. 



CHAPTER I. 

LANGUAGE. 

A "Way to Prepare Pictures for Young Pupils Supplying the 

Proper Word A Language Lesson Weekly Plan of 

Language Work for Lower Grammar Grades Writing 

Ordinals Correcting Bad English For Beginners in 

Composition Word-developing An Easy Exercise in 

Composition Composition from Pictures Plan for 

Oral Composition Debating Exercises Language. 

drill in Every Lesson Letter-writing Matter for Let- 
ters Forms for Business Letters Papers Written from 

Recitation Notes Equivalent Forms of Expression 

Device for Use of Capitals Excerpts to Write Out from 

Memory Require Plan in Composition-writing To 

Exercise the Imagination Suggestions about Local Sub- 
jects for Compositions A Letter Written upon the Black- 
board by all the Class Choice of Words Order of 

Criticism A Plan for Rapid Correction of Composi- 
tions To Fold and File Essays Assigning a Subject 

for a Composition Character Sketches Illustrative 

Syntax A Talk on Language A Grammar Lesson 



10 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Device for Building Up the Conjugation of the Verb 

The Infinitive Mood Shall and Will Matter for a 

Talk on Words Surnames. 

A Way to Prepare Pictures for Young Pu- 
pils.— If you use pictures for language work in the 
lowest grades, an excellent plan is to paste the pictures 
upon stiff paper or pasteboard, leaving an edge or bor- 
der around the engraving. On this border write such 
words as you think the pupil will probably wish to 
use, but which are beyond his knowledge to spell. In 
this manner a difficulty to the pupil's composition is 
removed ; for if unaided in this way, he works under 
a restriction that discourages, because the work is 
simply too hard. 

Supplying the Proper Word.— In the following 
phrases let the pupil supply the proper words; as, 
" A of gloves," a pair of gloves: 



A of ducks. 


A — 


— of partridges 


A of mice. 


A — 


— of oxen. 


A of bees. 


A — 


— of needles. 


A of cattle. 


A — 


— of milk. 


A of birds. 


A — 


— of books. 


A of horses. 


A — 


— of paper. 



A Language Lesson.— Put these sentences upon 
the board and have the pupils fill in the blanks. If 
there is not time dui'ing school hours to write the sen- 
tences on the board, transcribe them upon blank cards 
and let the pupils copy these upon their slates. While 
it may take longer to write the cards, they can be used 



LANGUAGE. H 

again and again, and taken to another school, should 
the teacher change his field of labor. 

In these sentences supply the missing pronoun: 

(1) Father drove Martha and to school. 

(2) Let James and carry it. 

(3) May John and get a paU of water ? 

(4) They have all gone but . 

(5) boys are studying Latin. 

(6) The teacher said giiis must come early to- 
night. 

(7) The difference between you and is that you 

have two study periods a day, while I have none. 

(8) To did you give it? 

(9) Who borrowed my slate? . 

(10) Ralph is older than . 

(11) do you wish to see? 

In the following supply the omitted verb : 

(1) I am more tired than you ; will you let me 

down on the lounge? 

(2) Yesterday I on the sofa aU the morning. 

(3) Is the table yet? 

(4) Fetch a chair for Mr. Smith, Jane. down, 

please, sir. 

(5) the magazine on the table and let it there. 

(6) The dog came in and down before the table. 

(7) He has away. 

(8) He was ing on the bed when I came home. 

(9) The carpenter has the posts on the ground, 

where he is to build the fence. 

Let the work be brought to the recitation, and the 



12 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

sentences read, the class deciding when the correct 
form is used. 

Weekly Plan of Language Work for Lower 
Grammar Grades.— Mowda?/— Letter-writing; drill 
in naming parts of speech. 

TztescZa 2/— Written reproduction of some selection; 
drill in writing plurals and possessives. 

TFecZuescZa?/— Reading of short poems; practice in 
talking ; children telling the story of the poem. 

Thursday — Memory exercise; recitation of quota- 
tions from authors; principal element of a sentence. 

Friday — Ee views. 

Writing Ordinals.— The proper form for writing 
first, second, third, fourth, etc., is 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 
and not 1^', 2".'^, 3":?, 4'.^ ; because 4th is as really fourth 
as the full word. To show that this is true, let 
the teacher write on the board 5, and ask the pupils 
to read it. They will say "Five." In another place 
write "th," and ask them to pronounce it also. In 
still another place write " 5th," and ask them to read 
it. They must say " Fifth." If it be true to write 
fifth, " 5th;" fifteenth, 15th, we must also write as one 
word 1st, 2nd, 3rd. 

Correcting Bad English.— A valuable lesson in 
grammar can be made by showing to the class the 
errors which are most commonly made in speaking. 
Give a sentence containing the word in question, 
pointing out the error, and write the correct form of 
the word on the board. 

Many people say " I done it," for " I did it ;" "I have 



LANGUAGE. 13 

got it," for "I have it;" " He ain't there," for "He 
isn't there;'" '"I hain't got none," for "I haven't any." 
The verbs lay and lie are commonly interchanged. 
After teaching the inflection of these verbs, it will 
assist the pupil in using them correctly if he be made 
to see that lay must have an object, expressed or 
understood, and that lie has not. Now, if he bo taught 
to consider in using the words whether an object is 
expressed or understood, he will soon come to use 
these verbs properly, and will readily see that such a 
sentence as "The boat lays at her moorings" is wrong, 
for the reason that the boat cannot lay anything. 
Other improper usages of words will occur to the 
teacher to be used in this connection. 

For Beginners in Composition. — For composi- 
tion work with small pupils select simple topics, and 
such as are sure to be familiar to them. The follow- 
ing questions are suggested which they may answer 
in the form of a narrative : 

At what time did you start for school ? 

What did you bring with you ? 

Who came with you ? 

In what did you carry your books ? 

Tell what you can about the books. 

What did you see on your way ? 

Whom did you meet ? 

What did you say to them, and what replies did 
thoy make ? 

Whom did you find in the school-house ? 

What did you do after you canae into the school- 
room ? 



14 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

To such questions as the following, as extended 
answers as possible should be required : 

What is found inside an apple when it is cut open ? 

What is the material of a little girFs apron ? 

Of what are shoes made ? 

Who makes the leather, and from what is it made ? 

What covers the outside of a tree, and what is its 
usual color ? 

Of what are baskets made ? 

Describe the different parts of an apple. 

Tell all you can about the colors of flowers. 

How many holidays are there in a year ? Name 
them. 

Mention the different things that grow in your 
garden. 

What animals like to eat apples ? 

What do animals eat besides apples ? 

Word-developing.— Say to the class, "There is a 
man standing on a small island in the middle of a 
lake. How will he get to the shore ?" Some wUl 
answer, " He will swim;" others, "He will row over 
in a boat." Ask them to describe the manner of row- 
ing, and let a figure of an oar be drawn on the board. 
Write " oars," " rowed," " swim," upon the board. "K 
the man stops rowing, what will happen to the boat ?" 
"It wUl float," "It will drift." Ask for the fuU 
meaning of "float" and "drift, "and write them on 
the board. "What will happen if the boat gets into 
the rapids?" "Upset," will be answered. This may 
bo continued until a sufficient number of words have 
been developed. Let each word be correctly spelled 
and pronounced, and accui^ately defined. Let each 



LANGUAGE. 15 

pupil in turn form a sentence v/ith one or more of 
these words in it, and write it on the board. Finally, 
tell the class to write out the whole story which has 
been outlined, and bring it to be read at the next 
recitation. 

An Easy Exercise in Composition. — Havinp: 
spoken to a class about the senses and what they tell 
us, direct the class to write out what their senses tell 
them about the following "tilings : an cqjple, a knife, a 
lead-pencil, a bottle of ink, a flower, a clock, a piece of 
chalk, a box, a piece of charcoal, etc. 

Compositions from Pictures.— If pupils are 
asked to bring to school all the pictures they can get 
from books and papers, the teacher will thus obtain 
much good material for composition work. Take the 
pictures, trim them close to the edge of the engrav- 
ing so as to cut off all reading, then paste them upon 
pieces of pasteboard, and they are in condition for 
long wear. Distribute them to pupils and ask them to 
write what they can about the picture. When a pupil 
has written about a picture, let him write his name 
upon the back of it, so that it may not be given him a 
second time. 

Plan for Oral Composition.— Carry to the class 
some entertaining book — either a story or a description 
of travel — and have a page or two read by one of the 
class. The book is to be closed at this point and 
another asked to tell what has been read. The rest 
may correct any errors either in language or in the 
statement of what has been read. When a sufficient 



16 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

araount has been produced, ask all the members of the 
class to write out what they have heard and bring it 
in the next day. After some practice in this kind of 
work, they may be allowed to take the main points of 
the story or description and add any thoughts of their 
own which are appropriate to the subject. 

Debating Exercises.— Select some subject within 
the capacity of the pupils, and appoint a number to 
debate it. If the number be six, assign three to the 
affirmative and three to the negative side. Let a jury 
of scholars be chosen, who, when all the arguments 
are presented, shall decide for the one side or the 
other. It will be well to have the arguments pre- 
sented in alternate order; first, one upon the affirma- 
tive side, foUowed by one upon the negative. 

Select subjects that are of practical importance and 
of general interest, and in regard to which the pupils 
can readily gain information either by inquiry or read- 
ing. 

Language-drill in Every Lesson.— Make every 
lesson a drill in language. Whatever be the topic, 
correct all errors in grammar and pronunciation. En- 
courage your pupils to choose carefully and wisely the 
form in which they state either questions or answers. 
Wise guidance in this direction will bear rich fruit in 
later years. 

Letter-writing.— In connection with the work in 
gi-ammar and rhetoric, Fee that your pupils have 
plenty of practice in writing letters. Probably in no 
branch are pupils found so deficient, on leaving school, 



LANGUAGE. 17 

as in this. Have frequent exercises in writing busi- 
ness letters, and in these see that the following points 
are observed: (a) They should be brief and to the 
point, {h) They should contain nothmg but matter 
relating to the business in question. (c) Nothing 
should be written in such a manner as to allow a 
I chance of misunderstanding, (d) The date, name, and 
;i:ldress of the writer should be plainly written. 

In ordinary letters of friendship, while it is absurd 
to give rules, it is of advantage to bring out the points 
given below. Pupils frequently have the erroneous 
idea that an unusual and formal style must be used in 
letter- writing, thus destroying the simplicity and nat- 
uralness of their productions. 

1. Letters should be written in a conversational 
style, and this can be obtained by writing just as one 
would speak to another, face to face. 

2. Unless the letter is to a very intimate friend, the 
writer should say but little of himself. 

3. Let it be remembered that in writing a letter one 
is placing in black and white that which may stand 
for years. Care should therefore be exercised that 
nothing be written which one might afterwards regret. 

Matter for Letters.— 1. Write a letter to a class- 
mate who left school a week ago, relating whatever of 
interest has occurred in school for a few days past. 

2. Write a letter to a friend describing how you won 
in one of your games. 

3. Write a letter to a friend inviting her to a game 
of tennis or croquet to-morrow afternoon. 

4. Write a letter in the third person inviting Mrs. 
Kate Wildey to dinner. 

2 



18 SCHOOL DEVICIsS. 

5. Write a letter to your mother, supposing her to 
be away from home for a week. 

6. Write a letter to a friend regretting that you 
were unable to drive over to see him last Saturday. 

Forms of Business Letters.— Give your pupils 
such forms of letters as one would use in many differ 
ent kinds of business. Such, for instance, as the fol 
lowing to a publishing house : 

Providence, R I., Dec. 5, 1885. 
Houghton, MiflOin & Co. 
Gentlemen, — 

Enclosed find four dollars ($4), for which 
please send the Atlantic Monthly for one year to my 
address. 

Yours truly, 

J. L. Parsons. 

Papers Written from Recitation Notes. — 
Not only should the pupil be required to reproduce 
from material placed before him or related by the 
teacher, but he should be required to take notes in the 
recitation and elaborate them, reading them the next 
day in class as called upon. If the pupil is studying 
science, let him write out a full report of experiments 
made by himself or by the teacher. These may be il- 
lustrated by drawings of the apparatus used. It will 
be well to allow illustrations in any of the composi- 
tions if the writer is capable of producing them. For 
such work unruled paper should be used. 

Equivalent Forms of Expression.— As a drill in 
language, ask your class to change a given expression 
into one containing the same idea, but set forth in dif- 
ferent language. Ask them to express dry, matter-of- 



LANGUAGE. 



19 



fact prose in a lively, poetic form ; and, in general, let 
them take any sentence and express it in a different 
way. Give them newspaper-cuttings to express in a 
clearer, more incisive manner. They will thus get in 
the hahit of choosing the form of speech which will 
most accurately express the meaning desired. 

Device for Use of Capitals. — Let the pupils 
of the grammar grades copy in their note-books this 
condensed plan of the i-ules for the use of capitals : 









e4- 



(Qiie^ly, / 



'tz-a-^t-e. <jj^ ^ne 



e^^ 



7- 






£^^i 



■t-^^^'^t-a-t^-u^yi/C -tct-ayKi -i/n- -^ye-ui^ 






''t-e ^■i.-a'i^o-wyi Cy 



^4 






<l^- 



'.^Cei^. 



'(^■n^e^^c^o-t^ (^ , 



20 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Excerptb to Write Out from Memory.— In tlio 

newspapers will be found many short stories or de- 
scriptions, well written and entertaining, which it will 
pay to cut out and paste upon cards for use in repro- 
duction. Let a card be handed to each student, allow 
three or four minutes in which to read the printed 
sketch, and then collect them. After which require 
each one to write out from memory what he has read. 
Below are given excerpts to show what is meant : 

HOW THE JINGLET GETS INSIDE. 

The making of sleigh-bells is quite an art. The little iron 
ball is too big to be put in through the holes in the bell, and 
yet it is inside. How did it get there? The little iron ball is 
called the " jinglet." When you shake the sleigh-bell it jingles. 
In making the bell this jinglet is put inside a little ball of mud, 
just the shape of the inside of the bell. This mud ball with 
the jinglet inside is placed in the mould of the outside, and the 
metal is poured in, which fills up the space between the ball 
and the mould. When the mould is taken off, you see a sleigh- 
bell, but it will not ring, as it is full of dirt. The hot metal 
dries this, so that it can be shaken out. When this has been 
done the little iron jinglet will be found inside the bell, and 
the bell will ring. It took a great many years to think out the 
way to make a sleigh-bell. — The ChrisUan Union. 

SAVING A LIFE. 

One day last winter, '83-'84, when the mercury was down 
somewhere in the forties below, an open sleigh stage was mak- 
ing its way along a mountain road between two Montana 
towns. The only passengers were a woman and her young 
child. They were scantily clad for the rigorous weather, and 
the woman removed one of her wraps to protect the child. The 



LANGUAGE. 21 

driver discerned that she was growing drowsy, and warned her 
of the deadly peril of falling asleep. It was of no use, nor did 
the vigorous shaking he gave her serve to Iceep her awake. 
Finally the driver seized her, threw her out uito the road, and 
drove off with the child at a rapid pace. This last expedient 
was successful. Awakened by the shock of the fall, the 
woman saw the stage disappearing with her child. Her mater- 
nal instincts were aroused. She ran after the stage as fast as 
she could; the driver slackened up a little, but did not stop till 
he saw that the poor mother was thoroughly warmed by the 
exercise. Her life was saved. An hour later the stage reached 
d station, where buffalo robes were obtained to protect her 
against the deadly cold for the remainder of the journey. — Tfie 
Youth's Companion. 

Require Plan in Composition-writing. —In 

composition work the pupil should be taught to plan 
his work in a logical way. He should first make an 
outline of the subject, arranging the topics in divi- 
sions and subdivisions. After some practice of this 
sort, upon selecting a subject he will instinctively be- 
gin to analyze it, picking out the chief points, and the 
different ways in which these chief points may be 
treated. 

To Exercise the Imagination.— The following 
are designed for written exercises. The title, direc- 
tions, and hints may be written upon the board. Each 
pupil should write the title properly upon his paper 
and then, with the aid of the suggestions given, relate 
the imaginary details. 

1. The adventures of a fire-cent piece. 

Tell where and when it was coined. Who first ob- 



22 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

tained it from the mint. How many times it was spent, 
and for what purposes. Where it is now. 

2. The life of a canary-bird. 

Imagine a canary telling all that has happened to 
him from the first day of his life. Where he has lived. 
What he has done. What he thinks of some of the 
people he has seen. What he Ukes to do. What he 
would do if he could. 

3. A family of five people at tea. 

Imagine five people at tea. Describe and name 
them. Tell what they are talking about. TeU some 
of the things they say. Tell where they go as they 
leave the room. 

4. A broolc. 

Imagine a pretty little brook, winding about among 
the meadows and through the woods. Tell where 
it starts, and where it expects to go to. What it 
finds in its way, and why it is so crooked. What 
flowers grow upon its banks. What it does for the 
flowers that grow on its banks. Tell about a big 
shady pool in one place and what lives there. TeU 
about a shallow place where the sun shines, and the 
stones at the bottom of this place. How people cross 
the brook; what animals do when they come to it. 
What happened once at a certain place. What makes 
it grow larger ; where it goes. 

5. What I should like to do. 

Imagine that you are now able to do just as ybu 
please; state what you would do. Give particulars 
and reasons for your choice. 



LANGUAGE. 23 

Suggestions about Local Subjects for Com- 
positions. — There is, in almost every locality, some 
folk-lore, legend, or tradition. Let the pupils himt up 
these and embody them in a paper. ''Historical 
Hereabouts" is a good subject for such a paper. For 
an instance of tradition, say to the class, '' I have heard 
a story of a hermit who used to live about here years 
ago. Many things are told of him which are interest- 
ing. Now, I wish you to inquire here and there, learn 
all you can about him, and make an interesting paper 
to read to the class or school." 

Again, the teacher may say, " You have seen a piece 
of marble in the rough, or after it has been sawed, and 
also after it has been polished. The way in which this 
is done is very interesting. Who would like to go to 
the marble cutter's, watch the work, and then write 
a description of it ?" 

A Letter Written upon Blackboard by All 

the Class.— Send a pupil to the board and tell him to 
begin a letter. After he has written a few sentences, 
send another to add a new thought, and then another 
and another. The last pupil is told to close the letter. 

Choice of Words.— To create the habit of choosing 
the best word to express an idea or describe an object, 
place upon the board sentences arranged as in the fol- 
lowing, and ask the pupil to choose the proper word. 
The examples given may be extended by the teacher : 

Snice ') 

agreeable >■ manners, 
graceful ) 

Clovely ). 
2. She has a < pretty > dress. 
( elegant 3 



24 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

i some ') 

3. He is < somewhat >■ better, 

( much ) 

f fearfully ) 

4. The weather is -^ terribly > cold. 

( unusually ) 

«. She looks very \ l^^- 

6. Almost I -^^y^iy (-«■>' -™y- 

^•"'^"IreSly ("ioebook. 
8.Thestarslook|bri|ht.^ 

9. This is l^o^ifeasUy H'* *™ '''"'^- 

10. Mine is not j ^ \ good as his. 

f magnificent ] 

11. It is a j^Pjl^did Ij^^^ 

t beautiful J 

12. Her dress looks | ^^^ 

Order of Criticism.— The following order of criti- 
cism for written work may be used by teachers and 
by students in deciding upon the merits and defects of 
compositions. It will be seen that the first point to be 
noticed in any given article is the thought, taken as a 
ivhole. It will be apparent that this is of more conse- 
quence than the spelling and the use of capitals. 
While these points are important, the student should 
be made to feel that in this work he must have a clear 



LANQUAQR ^5 

conception of the thought before beginning to write, 
and that this will be first taken into consideration by 
the teacher. Other points follow in the order of im- 
portance. 

I. The thought. 
II. Order of thought. 
III. Expression, or use of language. 

1. Use of words. 

2. Style. 

3. Grouping of sentences. 

4. Capital letters. 

5. Spelhng. 

6. General appearance. 

Frequently it is profitable to collect all the essays, 
assign them to different mombers of the class, asking 
each to read the essay and write a criticism upon it. 
If the criticism is unduly severe and captious, hand 
both essay and criticism to another student who will 
give a just estimate of both. 

Plan for Rapid Correction of Compositions. 

— Where a large number of impromptu comi)Ositions, 
or reproductions from memory, are handed in every 
few days, and it is found difficult to go over each one 
carefully, it is well to use the following plan. Select 
at random eight or ten of the papers and cori-ect them, 
noting carefully the characteristic errors. Bring these 
before the class and make clear your corrections. 
These corrections will probablj' apply to a Inrge part 
of the papers. At the next writing of compositions, 
take eight or ten papers belonging to other pupils and 



26 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

continue in this way until each pupil's work has passed 
under your eye. 

To Fold and File Essays.— Essays should be 
folded lengthwise and placed in a pile so that the cen- 
tre of the page, where the fold comes, shall he upon 
the right hand. Then let the name be written across 
the top, and a rubber band placed about them. Any 
desired essay can be quickly found by running over 
the bunch with the right hand, each essay being 
raised entire, as there are no edges of leaves on the 
right side. In obliging pupils to follow this plan, the 
teacher trains them to file papers as business men do. 

Assigning a Subject for a Composition.— 
Often a subject may be invested with interest and 
given a strong start by some such introduction as 
the following: " The subject I wish to assign for the 
next comj)osition is about a wonderful instrument. 
In all the range of inventions since the world began, 
not one can be compared with this. The more you 
think of it and study it, the more strongly will you be 
impressed with the great skill of the inventor, and the 
more plainly wiU you see the many marvellous uses to 
which it is adapted, and how much has depended on 
it during all time. The subject is— (the teacher here 
writes upon the blackboard) The Human Hand. 

Character Sketches.— Select from fiction or 
travels a few sketches of character and read these to 
the class for illustrations. As soon as the class has a 
clear idea of what is meant by a character sketch, 
say that for the next composition you shall expect 



LANGUAGE. g7 

from each a character sketch. They are not to 
name the person, but may take any character they 
\ know. Of course, the teacher will use time enough in 
reading the character sketches, and in speaking of 
them, to show the class that in their first attempts 
they should select some person whose characteristics 
are strongly marked. 

Illustrative Syntax.— Instead of giving pupils false 
syntax to correct, vary the work by writing on the 
board as many of the rules of syntax as you wish to 
give for a lesson, and ask the pupils to write sentences 
to illustrate these. If, for instance, the rules given in- 
clude these, " Two or more singular subjects connected 
by or or nor require a singular verb, " ' ' Two or more 
singular subjects connected by and require a plural 
verb," the pupil should write on his slate such sen- 
tences as the following: "Neither gold nor silver 
was found in the mine," "Either John or Henry is 
going," "Mary and Susan are going," "The sun and 
the moon were visible. " 

A Talk on Language.— To break the monotony 
of the usual work and at the same time to increase the 
knowledge of the pupils, give a short talk on language, 
such as a teacher gave one morning. He said: "Now, 
if you will give mo your attention for a few moments, 
we will talk over some of the mistakes that people are 
apt to make in conversation. For instance, I heard 
one of the scholars say to another, as I came into the 
schoolroom, 'I'll go a little u'ays with you.' He 
probably meant that he would go a little icay, or a 
short distance, with his companion. I also heard one 



28 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

of the girls say to another, 'He don't know.' Will 
any one tell me the full form of 'don't?' Several 
voices, 'Do not.' Very well, 'He do not know' docs 
not sound correct. What should have been said? 
'He doesiVt know.' 

"I frequently hear one pupil say to another, 'It's 
time we went.' JVent denotes past time. What is 
the proper thing to say? ' Ifs time to go,^ or, better, 
' It is time we should go.' " 

The teacher continued to show in the same way the 
incorrectness of such exiDressions as, This is the longest 
(referring to two) ; I feel badhj; Read the last two 
verses ; Quite a number ; I ivoidd as leave go ; Where 
have you been to % He ain^t got none. 

A Grammar Lesson.— Many incorrect forms of 
speech are here given which should be brought to the 
attention of the pupils, and the proper corrections 
made. Let the pupils make a memorandum of the 
corrections in their note-book : 

A number of knives and forks u-ere taken. He told 
John and /, when a person acts Uke that, they ought 
to be punished. He said it was him. Everybody has 
a right to their opinion. These kind of apples are not 
sweet. I am goitag to lay down. She set down on the 
chair. He would have tvent. She dot^e right. Tlioy 
hadti't ought to. I have got one. I says. He re- 
peated it again. He took it off of the line. He or his 
son have gone. I don't know but irhat I shall do it. 
She seldom ever went out. He has lots of pictures. 
The two first verses. He is the largest of the two. He 
enjoys poor health. Was you speaking ? Not as I 
know of. Have you shook the carpet ? They have 



LANGUAGE. 29 

hrohe the stick. I see him two days ago. Give me 
them grapes. If I ivas rich, I avouIcI go. Seldom or 
ever. He is known through the United States. Two 
pair of gloves. I should think that John was the 
oldest. This house to let. The stick is twelve foot 
long. He is living at Boston. Such another man. 
They covered it over. A new 2Mir of shoes. Com- 
bined together. Almost no money. Somewheres in 
the country. I had rather go. A coujile of pounds. 
I am short in comparison to you. The meat was all 
eaten iq). I fell on the floor. He is averse to it. 
That aMt. Nobody else saw him. The other one. 
They mutually agreed. Down on hmi. They were all 
droivnded. I caUed to price your goods. His actions 
admit of no apology. He left his books to home. 

Device for Building Up Conjugation of the 
Verb. — If the pupil can be made to see the principle 
by which the various tenses of the verb are built up, 
he will be able to apply it readily in forming the re- 
quired part of any verb. If the verb " love" is taken, 
begin with the present, and show that the simple form 
of the verb (love) is found in all the persons except the 
second and third persons singular, which add "st" 
and "s" respectively. 

Next show that in the past or imperfect tense the 
past participle (loved) is used in aU the forms but the 
second person singular, which adds to this " st." 

Tell the class that the sign of the future is " shall " 
or " wiU;" but when "shall " is used for the first per- 
son, ' ' will " must be used for the second and third 
persons; and when "will" is used for the first person, 
"shall" must occui' in the second and third. 



30 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Then make it understood that the perfect, pluper- 
fect, and future-perfect tenses end with the past parti- 
ciple; and that the sign of the perfect is "have," as, 
"I have loved," etc. ; that the sign of the pluperfect is 
"had," and that of the future perfect is "shall have" 
or " will have;" but that when "shall have" is used in 
the first person, the forms of " will have" must occur 
in the second and third, and that when "will have" is 
used in the first person, ' ' shall have" must occur in 
the second and third. 

State that the signs of the potential mood are 
"may," "can," "must," for the present; "might," 
" could," " would," "should," for the past, to be used 
with the simple verb "love;" as, "I may love," or "I 
might love ;" and that have added to the signs of the 
present give the perfect, and to the signs of the past 
give the pluperfect; as, " may have," "might have." 

Show them that if is the sign of the subjvmctive mood, 
to be used in the present with the simple verb "love," 
and in the past with the past participle, and that the 
second and thml persons singular do not add " st" and 
"s." 

The infinitive mood should be made clear to the class 
as introduced by the preposition ' ' to. " 

After finishing the active voice, and explaining that 
this represents the subject of the verb as acting, 
show that the passive voice is formed by placing after 
the required tense of the verb "to be" the past parti- 
ciple of the verb to be made passive, and explain what 
the word passive means. 

The pupils should practise writing out different 
verbs on slate or paper, following these rules. 

In using these suggestions, the teacher will give one 



LANGUAGE. 31 

tense at a time, letting that grow before the class by- 
writing the foi-ms upon the board, and insisting upon 
their thorough committal to memory before the next 
tense is written out. Each day review all the tenses 
previously built up, and drill upon the signs of each 
tense. To test a class's knowledge of the way in 
which the passive voice is built up, du*ect pupils to 
write out the passive voice of some verb not met with 
in all the persons of the passive, as, for instance, the 
verb eat. 

The Infinitive Mood.— In teaching the use and 
government of the infinitive give such a sentence as, 
"We strive to save," in which is given an example of 
a finite verb and one not finite, or infinite. Show that 
a verb which agrees with its subject is a limited verb, 
and one which has no subject, as save, is unlimited. 
Show that finite and infinite are the same as limited 
and unlimited. In this way the pupils will understand 
what is meant by a finite verb and an infinitive. Show 
that in parsing an infinitive as governed by the prepo- 
sition to, it is regarded in the light of a noun. 

Shall and Will.— In the first person will expresses 
an intention or a promise, as, "I wiU go." meaning I 
intend or promise to go. Will should not be used as a 
question with the first person ; as, "Will I come?" 

Will in the second person may be used as a com- 
mand, or simply to foretell what will occur; as, " Yor 
will come with me." "You will do nothing of tlK* 
kind." As a question, ivill in the second person asks 
the intention of the person ; as, " Will you do it? " 

Will in the third person declares or foretells; as, 
"He will be here." 



32 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Shall in the first person declares or foretells, with 
no reference to v/ish; as, ''I shall be present." 

As a question, shall in the first person makes an in- 
quiry, or asks direction; as, "Shall I find you there?" 
" Shall I go?" that is, decide for me. 

Shall in the second person expresses authority, and 
therefore promises, commands, or threatens. 

Examples of Correct Usage. — Expressing future 
action : I shall ride to the city to-morrow. Expressing 
determination: You shall go. Consulting the judg- 
ment of another: Shall I go with him? Inquiry con- 
cerning another's intention : At what price shall you 
sell? Inquiry concerning another's desire : Will you 
have an orange? Inquiry conceriung futui-e action: 
"Will he go with us? 

Let the following blanks be fiUed with shall or will. 

I leave for Boston next week. I have my 

own way. You be pvmished. They reach 

here at noon. I put coal on the fire? 1 write 

to your brother? he come with ns? How I 

solve this problem? you have more coffee? 

you write your name here? At what place you 

buy it? Where you be to-morrow ? we have 

a good time? we see you this evening? When 

you begin? you have a few of them? If he 

goes, you? What you do about it? your 

father punish you? Pupils — please write their 

names. We do it. They - — - find it hard. he 

be permitted to go? I be in time? When 

we finish our work? 

Matter for a Talk on Words.— Use the follow- 
ing material for a talk on words, taking up a few 
words at a lesson. 



LANGUAGE. 33 

The subject is capable of being expanded to a 
greater extent than we have space to show here, but 
the teacher, with this material to start with, can 
select other words and carry the subject of derivation 
to a greater length. In connection with this show 
your class how words are built up by prefixes and 
suffixes, and explain the meaning which these give to 
words. 

Curfew. From French words meaning cover up 
your fire. A bell was formerly rung at eight o'clock, 
when people were expected to retire. 

Tariff. From Tarifa, a Moorish fortress in 
Southern Spain, from which position the Moors used 
to levy taxes on passing ships for the merchandise 
wliich they transported. 

God's Acre. A burial-ground, referring to the idea 
of the harvest which the Deity will garner at the 
resurrection of the dead. 

Tantalize. From "Tantalus," who was doomed to 
be contimially in sight of water but not allowed to 
touch it. 

Pastor. From the Latin word, meaning a shepherd. 

Lunacy. From Luna, the moon, a word kindred 
with moonshine, or folly. 

Cambric. From Camhraij, a place where this kind 
of cloth was first made. 

Trivial. From Latin words meaning three roads. 
That is, such talk as one hears on the corners of streets. 

Sincere. From Latin words meaning ivithout icax; 
that is, furniture whose defects were not concealed by 
filling with wax. 

Atonement. At-one-nxQxii, showing the united rela- 
tion of God and man. 
3 



34 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Good-bye. " God be wi' ye." 

Topsy-turvy. " Topside t'other way." 

Sierra. Saw-like. Referring to the jagged appear- 
ance of the tops of these mountains. 

Misery. From miser, a word meaning wretched. 

Methodist. A name appUed to tlie founders of the 
sect who were methodical in their devotions. 

Paper. From the Egyj)tian papyrus, which was 
used for writing purposes. 

Dahlia. From Dahl, a Swede who first cultivated 
the yjlant. 

Stentorian. From Stentor, a loud-voiced Homeric 
orator. 

Surname. From words denoting a name in addition. 

Surnames.— The subject of surnames affords mate- 
rial for an interesting talk on words. Explain to your 
class that at one time it was customary for people to 
have but one name ; finally, a common word was used 
to designate a particular clan or family. 

Sbow how certain names may have arisen from 
marked peculiarities in those to whom they wei*e ap- 
plied, as Longfellow, Blackman, Reed (Red), Brown, 
White, and Gray. When such characteristic names 
were used up, new names were sought from various 
sources, — from animals, as WoKe, Lyons; and from 
natural objects, as Stone, Sand; from adjectives, as 
Strong, Swift, Wise, Rich. Point out the fact that 
the Scotch Mac, and the Welsh Ap, and the Norman 
Fitz, mean the son of; thus, MacDongal means the son 
of Dougal, or Douglass; Fitzbugh, the son of Hugh. 



QEOGBAPEY. 35 



CHAPTER II. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Order of Topics for the Study of the Grand Divisions of the 

Earth How to Mould Map-drawing A Normal 

Lesson Production Map Zigzag Journeys Trac- 
ing A Guessing Exercise Geography a Means of 

Culture Suggestive Model for an Examination in Geog- 

~ raphy. 

Order of Topics for the Study of the Grand 
Divisions of the Earth. 

1. Striking characteristics. 

2. Brief history. 

3. Position, etc. 

ri. Highlands. 

4 Surface \ ^- Lowlands. 

4. tourtace. < 3 p^^flig 

[ 4. Progressive map. 

5. Drainage. 

6. Pohtical divisions. 

C 1. Border water. 

7. Natural divisions. < 2. Projections. 

( 3. Isthmuses. 

!' 1. Causes. 
2. Peculiarities. 
3. Healthfulness. 
( 1. Vegetable. 
9. Life. < 2. Animal. 
3. Human. 



36 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

10. Productions. 

11. Exports. 

12. Imports 

13. Prominent cities. 

14. Journeys. 

15. Comparisons. 

Outline for North America by the use of 
moulding-board, wall-map, and drawing. 

1. Position. — Use the globe for this. 

2. General Form. — Let pupil show this by drawing 

outline on the board. 

o q.„„ S Comparative. 
6. biZE. ^ Absolute. 

4. General Boundaries, 

5. Outline, Coast Points, and Islands.— Use the 
moulding-board for this. As the different points on 
the coast are moulded, speak of any peculiarity per- 
taining to them, as points dangerous to seamen, etc. 
Discuss the waters surrounding a peninsula before 
taking up the peninsula itself, as Florida and the sur- 
rounding waters. 

Let the pupils draw outline on slates as the outline is 
placed on the board, 

6. Surface. 

r 1. Atlantic Highlands, 
I 2. Pacific Highlands, 
(a) General relief. \ 3. Central plain. 
I 4. Height of land. 
15. Slopes. (N., S., E., and V/.) 
After moulding the outline, build up 'the genei-al 
relief as given by the pupils. 

(6) Separate each mountain system and plateau dis- 
tinctly. Separate the system into ranges and peaks. 



GBOGRAPHT. 37 

See that pupils can pronounce and spell all names. 
Speak of the scenery, productions, etc., of individual 
portions. Have pupils draw profile outlines from east 
to west, and north to south. 

7. Drainage. — Speak of the circulation from the 
ocean back again to the ocean. Show the water-sheds 
upon the moulding-board. Separate the rivers into 
systems. Mould the principal rivers and lakes. Bring 
out interesting points, such as Niagara, Yosemite, etc. 

8. Soil. — From the surface aiid drainage lead the 
class to infer the character of the soil. Bring out con- 
trasts, such as the barrenness of Labrador and the 
fertility of the Mississippi Valley. 

! Northern. 
Central. 
Southern. 
Lead the pupU to infer the climate from the position, 
after explaining the influence of elevation, proximity 
to oceans, slope, etc. * 

10. Plants, Animals, Minerals, etc. — Use the three 
belts given above. Many of the points may be inferred 
from the surface, soil, and climate. 

11. Political Divisions, People, etc.- Take only 
the large divisions. Make the people of the countries 
real by pictures, stories, and articles belonging to 
them. 

12. Cities. — Name, locate, and describe some of the 
most important cities. Take imaginary journeys from 
one city to another, and let pupils desci'ibe surface, 
soU, climate, productions, and people of the country 
through which they pass. Illustrate these journeys 
on the moulding-board. Points of history may be 
brought up incidentally. Have a complete map of 



38 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

North America drawn for review. Use tlie same plan 
for a state or country. 
Eead chapter xii., "Fitch's Lectures on Teaching." 

How to Mould.— There are many teachers who, 
having read of moulding as an aid in the study of 
geography, would like to try it in their schools, yet 
do not know how to make the trial. The directions 
given below will afford a good basis to begin upon, 
and from the px-actice of these suggestions the teacher 
will gain sufficient experience to pursue moulding in 
his classes. 

Let a board five feet long and four feet wide be 
made by taking five lengths out from a board one foot 
wide and half an inch thick. Place these side by side 
and fasten them to batten placed beneath. Around 
the edges of this board nail strips half an inch thick, 
and one inch and a half wide. The moulding will 
thus project above the board one inch. This may be 
placed on a table or desk, and slightly inclined. Place 
in this about a half bushel of moist loam,*— not too 
moist, as it would then stick to the fingers, but with 
moisture sufficient to render it capable of retaining 
any shape to which it may be moulded. 

Take for the first trial South America, as this pre- 
sents an easy outline. An outline may be drawn and 
the loam filled in between the lines, or, better still, let 
the outline be formed as the work progresses. The 
pupils should do the work with such assistance as is 
necessary froin the teacher. Have a wall-map in 
sight of the subject in hand, also the relief-maps to 
be found in many of the geographies. Let mountains 
and rivers, lakes and plains, be represented by the 



OEOGIIAPHY. 39 

appropriate elevation, level, or depression in the loam. 
Kindle additional enthusiasm by asking one pupil to 
bring some saltpetre ; another, Cayenne pepper ; others, 
coffee, berries, wool, pieces of iron, gold and silver 
foil, or paper, cotton, leather, tobacco-leaf, glass, to 
represent diamonds, spices, etc. Let the pupils place 
these in their proper localities upon the moulded con- 
tinent, and South America will become real to them. 

Map-drawing.— Have frequent map-drawing from 
memory, using no construction lines. Let it be done 
quickly and do not be too precise in your require- 
ments. A pupil who can draw quickly the outline of 
a country or a State, no matter if not perfectly true, 
and can locate cities, rivers, etc. , has gained a knowl- 
edge of geography that "will outlast his school exam- 
inations. 

A Normal Lesson.— The following lesson in geog- 
raphy is one given at a normal school, and is intro- 
duced here on account of its eminent adaptibility to 
other parts of geography. The average age of the 
class to which it was given was eleven years. 

State Work— Texas. 

General plan. 

Name and history. 

Boundaries. 

Coast-line, j gg^^ ^^^ 

Draw a map of the State. 

Mould it. 

Surface \ direction of slope. 

Guiiace. I Mountains, plateaus. 

Rivers. 

Soil. 



40 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

f Temperature. 

Climate. < Humidity. 

( Healtlifuiness. 

Productions. 

Occupations. 

( Capital. 

Cities. ■< Metropolis. 

( Oldest city, etc. 

Pictures and interesting facts to illustrate any part 
of the work. 

In a previous lesson the class had compared the 
the State, in size, with New England, the Middle 
States, etc., and had learned some of the important 
facts of its history, with mention of Generals Scott 
and Taylor. One pupil was directed to give the boun- 
daries from a wall-map, and the drill was as follows: 

As the pupil pointed, the class named the boundary ; 
another pupil named State, and class told which boun- 
dary it formed. Then a pupil was called upon to close 
his eyes and bound; class did the same. The bays, 
capes, and coast-line were treated in a similar way. 
Pupils were sent to the board who drew rapidly, with- 
out construction-lines, the outline of the State from a 
wall-map. The teacher pointed and traced parts on 
the wall-map ; pupils traced the same on the outline. 
The teacher had moulded the State, and three or four 
came to the table and told all they could in regard to 
the surface as exhibited by the moulding. The class 
was led to see that there were three kinds of surface. 
The terms " prairie" and " staked plains" were given, 
and the reason for the name " staked plains." There 
was a drill on the surface as follows : One child foimd 
a lowland on the map, another the same on the mould- 
ing; one a prairie on the map, another the same on 



QEOORAPUY. 41 

the moulding. Some found and traced the three kinds 
of surface, while others found the same upon the 
' moulded State. The Guadaloupe Mountains were de- 
scribed from the map and from the moulding, and 
wei;e drawn in outline upon the board. The class 
determined the direction and length of rivers by the 
slope. The important rivers were found on the map, 
traced in the moulding, and drawn upon the board. 
Pupils described rivers from the map and moulding 
with closed eyes. 

Soil. — Teacher : You remember the pictures shown 
you of the swamps of Louisiana; what kind of soil did 
you find there ? 

Class : Rich soil. 

Teacher (passing to Texas soil, near Louisiana): 
what kind of soil do j^ou think there is here ? 

Class determine that it is rich. 

They were then led to infer the kind of soil on the 
prairie by being told that wheat gi'ows there; and that 
of the "staked plains" by being told that cactuses 
grow there. " How many of you have cactuses at 
home ?" the teacher asked. By asking a few questions 
as to the care of these, she prepared a basis for an 
inference as to the humidity of the climate of the 
' ' staked plains. " 

By their knowledge of the climate of Louisiana, the 
climate of the swamps and low portions of Texas was 
developed. The class was led to infer that the prairies 
are not as moist as the swamps, and that in these 
parts of the State the climate is warm and healthful. 
From what had been said about the cactuses, they 
were led to infer that the climate of the plains is dry 
and hot. The pupils then traced on the moulding 



42 SCnOOL DEVICES. 

the parts of the State that are healthful, moist, very 
moist, dry, etc. Teacher pointed to various parts; 
children told the climate of those parts. Teacher 
asked, "In what direction must one go to find the 
climate more moist ? — to find it drier ?— to find it 
unhealthfid ?" One pupil was asked to recount all 
that had been said about the climate. Another sup- 
plied what was ouiitted. 

Productions. — The class was led to infer that 
nearly the same productions would be found in the 
swampy regions of Texas as in the same portions of 
Louisiana. One named the productions, while another 
placed the articles in the proper localities. Pictures 
of trees, sugar-cane, etc., were shown. In the same 
way the productions of the prairies and staked plains 
were taken up. Pictures of the cactus, aloe, and 
century -plant were shown. There were small pictures 
of Texan ponies, cattle, and sheep, which the pupils 
placed on the moulding in the proper places. The 
lesson ended with prodvictions. At the next lesson a 
rapid review would be taken. 

It can readily be seen that occupations would be in- 
ferred from the statement of productions. While the 
lesson was going forward all new matter was written 
upon the board under appropriate headings, as Rivers, 
Productions, etc. 

Mark in the lesson the use of icall-map, hlachhoard, 
moulding, — how the true relative importance of each 
is carefully observed. 

Production Map. — In many schools there are no 
opportunities for teaching the productions of a country 
by placing these upon the moulded country. A sub- 



OEOORAPIlT. 43 

stitute for this may be arranged in this way : Upon a 
large sheet of manila-paper let the pupils draw an out- 
line of the countiy the class is studying. An outline 
in blue color with water-lines around is quite effective. 
Paste upon the map the products of the country in 
their proper localities. Hice, logwood, tobacco-leaf, 
wheat, oats, gold and silver leaf, cotton, wool, — in 
fact, nearly every product can be easily fastened to 
the paper with a little glue. Puj^ils will gladly bring 
all the products if asked to do so. The production 
map can be used to give variety and freshness to the 
subject in schools that use the moulding-board. 

Zigzag Journeys. — For special work in geography 
give topics such as the following: Make a zigzag 
journey from New York to St. Louis, stopping at five 
cities, and spending one day in each. Have the pupils 
tell what could be seen in each. In order to do this, 
they are obliged to read up on these cities. Other 
topics of this sort will suggest themselves. 

Tracing. — It adds interest and forms a new way of 
impressing the facts of geographj- to let pupils trace in 
the air with the finger the general direction of rivers 
and mountain chains, the outlines of continents, lakes, 
etc., and at each new position of the finger tell what 
portion of country or what city is to be found there. 

A Guessing Exercise. — An occasional exercise 
like the following will stimulate interest and add en- 
joyment to the geography hoiu\ The teacher, or a 
member of the class, having in mind a city, begins to 
locate it according to the model herewith given. As 



44 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

soon as any one thinks he is able to name the city cor- 
rectly, let him raise his hand and state what city he 
thinks it is. The pupils may prepare at their seats 
papers similar to the model. Supposing the city in 
mind to be Liverpool, the paper would read : The city 
I am thinking of is north of the Equator, west of the 
Ui'al Mountains. It is on an island. It is a city of 
Great Britain. It is near the mouth of a river. It is 
a great commercial city. It is south of the Cheviot 
Hills. Steamships make it the end of their route. It 
is noted for its docks. 

Peninsulas, rivers, capes, lakes, seas, mountains, 
volcanoes, islands, states, even countries, can be used 
in this way. 

Geography a Means of Culture.-Geography 
may be made a means of bi'oadening the mind by 
studying the subject, as far as possible, as one would 
in making an actual ti-ip through the different coun 
tries. In order to do this, the teacher must make him- 
seK familiar, by outside reading, with the appearance 
of the country, its inhabitants, social manners, govern- 
ment, educational advancement, customs, traditions, 
early history, etc. The more vividly and interestingly 
these subjects are brought before the pupils, the 
greater will be their interest in what is presented, and 
the firmer their remembrance of it. We give hei^e- 
with a list of topics which may be brought up in con- 
nection with the study of any country: 

1. Name of country. 

2. Relative size as compared with some one of the 

United States, which may be taken as a 
standard. 



8, Productions. 



GEOQRAPHT. 45 

3. Position. 
( Customs, manners, social life, traditions, 

4. People. ■< education, early history, appearance, 
( vigor, form of government, etc. 

5. Climate. Under this head mention the cause of 
the climate, and how affected by position and 
surface. 

6. Mountains. 

7. Lakes and rivers. 
f (a) Mineral. If gold or silver is 

found, give a description of 
the way in which these are 
niined. Likewise of lead, salt, 
diamonds, copi^er, etc. 

(6) Vegetable. 

(c) Animals. Show pictures of all 
these, if possible. 

Bring out the surface of the country by the mould- 
ing-table. If the school is supplied with encyclopedias, 
urge pupils to read all that is given on the several 
topics. If the school is not provided with encyclopsedias, 
get up some sort of a literary entertainment, and pur- 
chase one of the numerous sets that are now sold at 
low rates. It will be a source of great profit and en- 
tertainment to the pupils. 

Suggestive Model for an Examination in 
Geography. — In making a voyage from London to 
Rome, what countries would you pass ? What large 
cities near the coast? What large rivers flow into the 
waters along your course ? 

Mention the cities of Europe that are near mountain- 
ranges. 

Through what States would a line drawn from New 



46 8CU00L DEVICES. 

York City to Chicago pass ? What large cities would 
be near this hne ? Mention the rivers which the hne 
would cross. 

Describe the water -shed of the Mississippi and the 
rivers which drain it. 

Why is the climate of Oregon warmer than that of 
Minnesota ? 

What waters wash the shores of North America ? 

Mention the largest rivers of Europe, Asia, Africa, 
North and South i^merica. 

Describe a journey from your present position, 
selecting your own destination. 

Why is the Great Salt Lake salt, and Lake Erie 
fresh ? 



8PELLTNQ. 47 



CHAPTER III. 

SPELLING. 

Phrase- spelling A Pupil's Spelling-book Avoid Con- 
trasting a Misspelled Word vvitli the Correct Form 

Have Spelling Lessons AVritten Idea as Necessary as 

Form A Test outside the Spelling-book A Suggestion 

Sketches of Objects for Use in Spelling Division of 

Work Two Classes of Words Spelling and Pronun- 
ciation by Copying Accuracy in Spelling An Occa- 
sional Drill in Spelling Difficult or Perplexing Words. 

Phrase-spelling.— Let there be occasional exer- 
cises in phrase-spelling by the classes in Physics, 
Physiology, History of the United States, Civil Gov- 
ernment, Rhetoric, and other subjects, as many of the 
words used in such studies are not often found in the 
usual spelHng lessons. Let the class go to the boards, 
and each one write his name at the top of the space 
allotted to his use. The teacher may then select fiom 
the text-book phrases, words, and sentences, reading 
one of these to each pupil at the board. Continue 
around the class till each one has written several. 

After these have been written, let the class take 
seats and ci'iticise the spelling. A part of a paragraph 
from Higginson's " History of the United States" is re- 
produced here to show more clearly the plan. 

* ' During this time of delay a committee had 



48 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

been appointed to draw up a declaration of inde- 
pendence, to be used if necessary, . , . The Declara- 
tion was written by Thomas Jefferson, though a few 
verbal changes were made by Adams and Franklin, 
which may still be seen, in their hand-writing, on the 
original document. There was a long discussion in 
the Congi-ess, and tlie Declaration was debated and 
criticised, word by word, and sometimes very severely 
attacked. During this attack John Adams was its 
chief defender; while Jefferson, who had written it, 
did not say a word. " In this extract the first pupil 
could be directed to write the sentence, "A commit- 
tee had been appointed;" another, "To dra^v up a 
declaration of independence." Toothers could be as- 
signed, " If necessary," "The Declaration was written 
by Thomas Jefferson," "A few verbal changes were 
made by Adams and Franklin," "The original docu- 
meiit," "There was a long discussion in Congress," 
" The Declaration was debated and criticised," " Some- 
times very severely attacked," "John Adams was its 
chief defender." 

A Pupil's Spelling-book.— It may be found ad- 
visible to allow students in spelling to make a spelling- 
book of the words they acquire from each lesson. Ten 
minutes may be taken each day in which to write 
these words in a blank-book, — each one writing the 
words which he has learned. The words should be 
written in a column, and the meaning of each may 
be placed opposite it. 

Avoid Contrasting a Misspelled Word with 
the Correct Form. — A misspelled word should never 



SPELLING. 49 

be wi-itten on the board, even to show that it is wrong. 
The tendency will be to confuse the pnpil, and cause 
him to forget which is the correct and which is the in- 
correct way to spell the word. 

Have Spelling Lessons Written.— Spelling les- 
sons should be xcritten, as far as i^racticable. The 
advantage of tliis is that the pupil learns to spell the 
words as he will use them. The words should be given 
out slowly, else in his hurry the pupil will form a 
habit of bad writing, and so lose in one branch while 
he gains in another. A special elTort should be made 
to create a pride in having neatly written exercises. 

Idea as Necessary as Form.— It is important 
that the pupil know the moaning of the word spelled. 
The form can make but little impression on his mind, 
if he does not associate with it the meaning con- 
veyed, 

A Test outside the Spelling-book.— Lay aside 
foi" a day the monotonous spei ling-book, which con- 
tains a large j)ercentage of words with which the 
pupil's mind should not be burdened, and try an exer- 
cise like the following: 
Let the pupils take their slates and write their own 

names in fuU. 
Write the teacher's surname. 
Write the name of the county in which they live. 
Tell where Scotchmen come from. 
Tell how old a boy is who was born in 1879. 
Write the names of four winter amusements, of four 
summer amusements. 
4 



50 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Tell how many days in this month. 

Mention what we plant to get potatoes. 

Give a definition of a druggist. 

Name six pieces of furniture. 

Name six kinds of tools. 

Write the names of the seven days. 

Name the year, month, and the day of the month. 

Write a verse from memory. 

A Suggestion.— A child learns best how to spell 
a word when he wishes to use it, and the wise teacher 
will constantly create that want. When a word is 
written in black or white, it stamps itself much more 
firmly upon the mind than when merely committed to 
memory. In writing, the hand forms the word, and 
the child will long remember just liotv he formed it, 
and its appearance on the board or slate. 

Sketches of Objects for Use in Spelling.— In 

primary spelling work, the teacher may make rough 
sketches of different objects on the board, and ask the 
class to write the names of these upon their slates. If 
any do not know the spelling of a particular word, 
write it on the board. After this the pupils may be 
asked to tell what they can about the.'^e objects, and a 
short description of each may be written on the board 
and copied on the slates. The sketches may be of a 
number of objects that are connected, and about 
which a short story can be made. This will give the 
class practice in invention. It will not take much 
skUl on the part of the teacher to make these sketches, 
even if his knowledge of drawing is limited. 



SPELLING. 51 

Division of Work.— A certain teacher uses this 
plan with his spelUng class. The pupils are sent to the 
board and divided into two divisions, one of which 
writes the words upon the board and the other the 
definitions. At the next recitation the order may be 
reversed. Those writing definitions receive a drill in 
composition, as they use their own language in giving 
the meanings of the words. 

To prevent copying at the boards, divide the class 
into three divisions, and give each division a word in 
turn ; mingle the divisions, so that no two pupils hav- 
ing the same word shall stand side by side. 

Two Classes of Words.— The spelling-book should 
not be used to the exclusion of all other sources. Two 
classes of words should be recognized,— those whose 
meaning is familiar through daily use, and those par- 
tially familiar because frequently heard. Others may 
be left until the pupil comes to them in his widenmg 
sphere of reading. The spelling of the first class of 
words may be taught either in the form of sentences 
or disconnectedly. The second should only be brought 
up in connection with sentence-making. 

Spelling and Punctuation by Copying.— The 
classes in the first and second reader may copy all 
their reading lessons. By this means they will grad- 
ually become familiar with the spelling of words com- 
monly used, as well as the use of marks of punctua- 
tion. When the second class has finished the first half 
of the book, a spelling lesson may be assigned from 
words found in each day's lesson. In correcting work 
it will be found advantageous, both to the teacher and 



52 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



pupils, for the slips to be exchanged and the errors 
noted by the pupils themselves. From the fact that 
they are correcting one another's work, they wOl look 
more carefully for mistakes and pay more marked at- 
tention to their cori-ection. 

Accuracy in Spelling.— Teach pupils that they 
must never write a word Avhcn they are uncertain of 
the way in which it should be spelled. Have a dic- 
tionary in the school-room and encourage pupils to 
consult it constantly — not only for the spelling and 
pronunciation of words, but also for their meaning. 

An Occasional Drill in Spelling. -Take a little 
time once a month or more frequently, in which to 
driU on lists of words such as the following. Repeat 
each list until the pupils are thoroughly familiar with 
them : 

Poniard. Privilege. Judgment. 

Separate. Ethereal. Knowledge. 

Business. Ecstasy. Rhetoric. 

Scintillate. Excellent. Surgeon. 

Allege. Supersede. Ancient 

Exhilarate. Ventilate. Autumn. 

Mignonette. Alcohol. Dairy. 

Neutral. Brilliant. Health. 

Isthmus. Marriage. Oyster. 

Difficult or Perplexing Words.— The following 
words are introduced to show devices by which the 
spelling of many words may be remembered : 
Committee. The spelling will be easily remem- 

bered from its having three 
double letters, 



SPELLING. 



63 



Mediterranean, 



Aqueduct. 

Bilious. 

Receive. 

Perceive. 

Conceive. 

Retrieve. 

Relieve. 

Achieve. 

Secretary, 



Double-?', because derived from 

terra, meaning earth. 
Aq, not acq, because from aqua, 

meaning water. 
One Z, because connected with bile. 

When e and i occur as diphthongs 
in a word, e comes before the i 
if the diphthong is preceded 
by c; otherwise the i precedes e. 

e after the r because formed from 
secret. 



54 SCHOOL DEVICES. 



CHAPTER IV. 

READING. 

Suggestions on Reading A Primaiy Reading Lesson 

Teaching Time of Day Device for Teaching a New 

Word Suggesting for Words Other Points on Read- 
ing To Create Sentiment agamst Poor Reading Drill 

for Expression To Drill upon Words often Mispro- 
nounced Pronunciation of Words Alilie in Form but 

Differing in Accent. 

Suggestions on Reading.— In the first place, do 
not make the lessons long — do a little, and do that 
thoroughly. Insist that the reading shall be natural, 
— as the pupil would talk were he telling the same thing 
to another. Occasionally read over the lesson to the 
class, and give such exj^ression as shaU bring out the 
full meaning. Show the class by individual para- 
graphs how the meaning is brought out more clearly 
in this way. Let all new words be defined before the 
reading begins. The scholar cannot read properly if 
he does not know the meaning of some of the words. 
These new words may be written out on the board 
with the meaning of each. After their meaning has 
been learned, have members of the class make up sen- 
tences with these words in them"; this will fix the 
moaning in their minds. Call on some one in the 



READma. 55 

class to give the chief points in the preceding lesson, 
or let the whole class write a review of it. Ask some 
one to read a sentence in the lesson, then with closed 
book tell clearly and fully what he has jvist read. 
Full answers should be required, that the habit of 
thoroughness may be cultivated. Do not correct mis- 
pronunciation while the pupil is reading. You will 
thus destroy the sense of his reading. 

A Primary Reading Lesson. — The following is 
essentially an object lesson to be given to little people 
just learning to read : 

It is best that there be not more than eight or ten in 
the class. If there are more who are to begin reading, 
divide the whole number into two or more divisions. 
Take some familiar object, as a box. Talk a few mo- 
ments about the box, holding it so that all can see it. 
Then draw an outline picture of it upon the board and 
wi'ite under it the word box, telling the class that this 
word b-o-x is the name of the object you are holding. 
When pupils have become familiar with the appear- 
ance of the word and its spelling, show them that the 
object has been expressed in three ways, — by the box 
you are holding, by the picture, and by the word. 
They will then get the notion that a word is a sign 
of an idea. Next take a book, and foUow the same 
plan. When the two words are written on the board, 
point in turn to each till the class becomes familiar 
with the objects as expressed in the word. Place the 
box on the book and ask, "Where is the box ?" On 
the hook. As the class give this answer, write the 
word on between the words already on the board, and 
the class will be able to read and imderstand the sen- 



56 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

tence, "A box on a book." Add other words to the 
sentence in the same way, and let the children copy 
the words and the pictures on their slates. 

Teaching Time of Day. — A little time can be 
taken at the close of the reading lessons for this pur- 
pose. Make a clock-dial out of pasteboard and pieces 
of tin, or, what is better, procure an old clock; then 
liractise telling the exact hours — that is, minute hand 
at twelve, while the hour hand is changed from hour 
to hour. Next, let hour hand remain at twelve, and 
drill upon the time past the hour; as, five, ten, or fif- 
teen minutes past to half past. Tlien would come five, 
ton, fiteen, etc., minutes to half past the other hours. 
Last, teach to tell the number of minutes to any given 
hour. 

Device for Teaching a New Word. — (a) Select 
some sentence containing the word, and write this upon 
the blackboard. Indicate the correct pronunciation of 
the word by diacritic marks, then have the class read 
the sentence. 

(6) Question about the letters in the word. What 
letters are silent ? What letters are not silent ? Are 
there any letters doubled ? 

(c) Let the class copy the word in other sentences, 
the teacher taking care that the word is correctly 
used. 

{d) Drill upon writing the word in dictated sen- 
tences until class know its form thoroughly. 

Suggesting for Words.— An excellent plan to 
prepare pupils for a new reading lesson is to select the 



READING. 57 

neTv words and suggest for them. Below we give a 
part of a reading lesson from one of the school readers, 
and a list of words new or unfamiliar to the pupils on 
taking up the lesson. After the list of words, are the 
suggestions for them. The words are written upon 
the board as soon as got from the pupils, and drill is 
put upon these words before beginning to read the 
lesson. 

Only a Few Dkops. 

"The most interesting event of our family history during 
my tenth year was the purchase of a cow. My father had a 
patch of land about a mile from our house, and he thought 
that the best use he could turn it to would be to pasture a cow. 
How many comforts and little luxuries that cow provided us 
with ! — milk, and butter, and sometimes even a cheese. Next 
to Cuff, our faithful house dog, the cow became the pet of the 
family. 

2. " And who is going to drive the cow to pasture, father ?" 
I asked, as he put her into the yard on the tirst evening after 
her arrival. " You, Kobert," he replied ; and his answer gave 
me no little sense of my own importance. Here I was with a 
charge laid on me, — an im]iortant duty which I was to dis- 
charge every day, and which for some time I did discharge 
with pleasure and alacrity." 

Interesting Discharge 

Inquiries Arrival, 

Alacrity Event 

Purchase Importance 

Harry's mother held two letters in her hand. She 
read one carelessly, and then cast it aside ; but as she 
read the other one, her eyes brightened and she looked 
pleased. What kind of a letter was the second one ? 
Interesting. It told her that her sister and two boys 



58 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

were coming to visit licr. Hariy's mother went to the 
kitchen to prepare for the visit. Name a few articles 
you think she cooked. Can we hve without cake, pies, 
and puddings ? Why do we eat them ? What do we 
call unnecessary articles that we like ? Luxuries. 

Mrs. Howe, Harry's mother, Avanted a number of 
articles from the cellar, for which she sent Harry, 
How do you think he obeyed ? Because he obeyed 
quickly, with what did he obey ? Quickness, or alac- 
rity. 

She found there were not enough raisins in the 
house. What do you think Harry had to do ? Go to 
the store to buy some. What word means buy ? Pur- 
chase. 

Harry lived on a farm and had duties to perform 
each day ; so when he asked his father if he might go 
to the train to meet his cousins, what do you think his 
father said ? What word means done, or finished? 
Discharged. 

The next afternoon, if you had been near the station, 
you would have seen Harry. What was he doing 
there? Waiting for his cousins. To do what? What 
word means come? Arrive. Because he was waiting 
for them to arrive, we say he was waiting for their 
? Arrival. 

The visitors stayed a month. They went riding, 
boating, and on picnics; and all had a very good 
time. . . . 

Why do people read histories and books about the 
olden times ? What one word means things that hap- 
pen ? Events. 

Do these books give all the events of those times ? 
Wliich ones ? The most important. Instead of say- 



ing, they are important events, we may say, they are 
events of importance. 

Other Points on Reading.— 1, Insist that the les- 
son shall bo read by each ]pupil as he would talk if he 
were saying the same thing. 

2. Take a few moments at the close of each lesson 
to make plain that which might prove to be an 
obstacle in the advance lesson. From time to time 
read over the advance lesson to the class, using the 
proper expression. 

3. By questions and answers, make plain all new 
words. Form new sentences, using these words. 

4. Let class criticise as each pupil pronounces. 
Teacher notes mispronounced words not noticed by 
the class, and requires them to be corrected for tbe 
next lesson. 

5. Let a part of each lesson be ^\T^tten on the board 
or upon slates. Give a list of words which are to be 
used in original sentences, and insist that these 
sentences be well written, and that they have some 
meaning. 

6. Let the review lesson be read each day. Do not 
call upon pupils in any set order, but promiscuously. 
Question thoroughly as to the meaning of the sentences 
read. If the sentence i-eads as follows : ' ' Charles and 
Henry went to the meadow beyond the wood, this 
morning, to pick strawberries," do not ask such ques- 
tions as, "What did Charles and Henry do? For 
what purpose did they go to the meadow ? Where is 
the meadow ?" etc. ; but ask for all the ideas contained 
in the sentence. That the pupils may be able to do 
this, begin with short sentences, and proceed to those 



60 SCHOOL DEVtCm. 

longer and more involved, as the pupils acquire readi- 
ness in seizing the whole thought. 

7. Before reading the advanced lesson the pupil 
should be able to pronounce all of the words, and also 
understand the thought conveyed in each sentence. 
He will then be able to read with expression. Do not 
correct a pupil while reading, unless he mispronounces, 
or reads with such expression as to lose the meaning 
of the text. 

8. Have occasional exercises in reading at sight. 

9. Occasionally read a short poem, and show the 
class how language may gain force and beauty from 
its poetic form. 

10. If your pupils are of sufficient age, have selec- 
tions read from the newspapers, and explained. Let 
all the places in these selections be fixed, geographi- 
cally, by looking them up on the map. 

11. It is better to have the idea of the sentence 
brought out with the proper expression, and to correct 
mispronunciation afterwards. Read short stories or bits 
of travel or history to the class, and ask pupils to 
repeat them, giving all the ideas. Do not follow any 
one plan continuously, but give variety to your work 
from day to day. 

To Create Sentiment against Poor Reading. 

— For advanced classes select something not pre- 
viously read; for instance, "The Legend of Sleepy 
Hollow." Have but one copy, and ask each member 
of the class to read a portion. The interest of the class 
in the story, and the unwillingness to lose any part of 
it, will secure expressive and distinct reading. 



BEADING. 



61 



Drill for Expression.— Copy upon the board some 
short extract which the class has not seen, and call 
upon pupils, one by one, to read it. Let there be no 
criticism till all have read. 

For Drill upon Words often Mispronounced. 

— Take as many of the following words as you deem 
best for one exercise, write them upon the board, and 
in an opposite column write the correct pronunciation. 
Allow sufficient time for each pupil to become ac- 
quainted with the proper pronunciation— a half -day at 
least— after which erase the column giving the pronun- 
ciation, and test the pupil's ability to pronounce cor- 
rectly each word of the list : 



Used. 

Dishonest. 

Museum. 

Lyceum. 

Precedent. 

Allopathic. 

Homoeopathic. 

Allopathy. 

Homoeopathy. 

Soughing. 

Obligatory. 

Combatant. 

Indisputable. 

Apparatus. 

Covetous. 

Iodine. 

Bromine. 

Prelude. 



Exquisite. 

Itinerant. 

Jugular. 

Sagacious. 

Carmine. 

Impetus. 

Ai'chitect. 

Bitumen. 

Condemning. 

Enervate. 

Process. 

Juliet. 

Greasy. 

Interesting. 

AUies. 

Quinine. 

Vehement. 

Aggrandize. 



Gallows. 

Finance. 

Mischievous. 

Suffice. 

Khedive. 

Condolence. 

Leisure. 

Extant. 

Pi'ecedence. 

Fatigue. 

Bronchitis. 

Stolid. 

Telegraphy. 

Photography, 

Carbine. 

Bombast. 

Inquiry. 

Albumen. 



62 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



Patron. 


Confidant. 


Pall Mall. 


Mirage. • 


Abdomen. 


Livelong. 


Franchise. 


Nasal. 


Association, 


Arab. 


Pronunciation. 


Pleiades. 


Cognomen. 




Bellows. 





Italian. 

Sacrifice. 

Bade. 

Acclimated. 

Extol. 

Franchise. 

Lamentable. 

Exemplary. 

Pronunciation of Words Alike in Form but 
Differing in Accent. — Let pupils write sentences, 
using the words given below, fii-st as nouns, then as 
verbs, and then read the sentences written, pronounc- 
ing the noun or verb, as the case may be, correctly : 

Nouns. Verbs. 

Sur'vey, Survey'. 

Per'fume, Perfume'. 

Ac'cent, Accent'. 

Proj'ect, Project'. 

Des'ert, Desert'. 

Reb'el, Rebel', 

overthrow, Overthrow'. 

Ab'stract, Abstract'. 

Con'vert, Convert'. 

Per'mit, Permit'. 

Ex'port, Export'. 

Sus'pect, Suspect'. 

Con'tract, Contract'. 

Pro'test, Protest'. 

A similar plan can be used with those words in 
which the accent of the adjective differs from the 
verb. Then, those forms in which the accent of the 
noun and the verb are the same should not be over- 
looked. 



ABITHMETia 63 

CHAPTER V. 

ABITHMETia 

Begin Number with Objects Principles First A Sim- 
ple Piece of Apparatus for Teaching Primary Number 

Scheme for Teaching the First Three Orders of Units 

Numeration Device for Drill with Decades Counting 

by 2's, 3's, etc. For Oral Practice in Adding and Sub- 
tracting Borrowing One from the Next Column A 

Form of Drill by Diagrams Rapid Addition For 

Busy Teachers Device for Detecting Incon-ect Answers 

in Addition Dc\'ice for Teaching Multiplication 

Drill in Rapid Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Di- 
viding Teach Long Division before Short Division 

Of Value in Greatest Common Divisor and Least Com- 
mon Multiple. Teach Beginners Fractions by Using 

Dollars and Cents Diagram for Teaching Fractions 

Chart for Teaching Fractions Multiplication of Fractions 

Incorrect Reading of Certain Fractions An Aid in 

Learning to Read Decimals Development Lesson in Mul- 
tiplication of Decimals Oral Drill in Compound Num- 
bers Drill for Percentage Give frequently Examples 

in Words instead of Figures Aids in Interest Num- 
ber of the Mouth Form for Partial Payments To 

Insure Thorough Understanding of Cube Root. 

Begin Number with Objects.— A child's first in- 
struction in arithmetic should b3 by means of objects. 
At this period the concrete is more real to him, and 
easier to compreheiid, than the abstract, To give him 



64 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

an idea of number, use objects. He will understand 
more readily whatyffc means, if five apples are placed 
before him, than by simply saying "Five." By means 
of objects, addition and subtraction will be compre- 
hended with but little effort. A frame with small 
balls upon wires is convenient, but not necessary, as 
books, pencils, pens, etc., will convey the idea of num- 
ber equally well. 

Principles First.— In teacliing arithmetic, or in 
fact any branch, do not place too nmch imi^ortance 
upon an exact mcmoiizing of the rules. Let princi- 
ples be sought, and rules deduced from these. En- 
courage pupils to invent rules of their own, which will 
serve the same purpose as those given in the book. 
Make an effort to secure original investigation by 
members of the class. 

There should be no reference to the answer while a 
pupil is working an example ; therefore, after a ques- 
tion is stated upon the board, let the books be laid 
aside. 

Read ch, x., Fitch's " Lectures on Teaching. 

A Simple Piece of Apparatus for Teaching 
Primary Number. — Have a wii-e stretched behind 
the desk and on it string spools. Teach counting by 
2's, 3's, 4's, etc. Subtraction-tables can be built up by 
using the spools, and also the lower tables of multiplica- 
tion. 

Scheme for Teaching the First Three Or- 
ders of Units.— First Step. As a basis, children 
should have been tauglit numbers from one to ten ob- 
jectively, and should be able to count to a hundred. 



ABixJiMETIC. 65 

Let the teacher write the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, % , 8, 9 on 
the blackboard m a cohimn, and ask children to read 
each figure, naming some object after it ; for instance, 1 
chair, 3 desks, 3 pencils, 4 erasers, etc. When the child 
sees clearly that 2 desks means two objects of the same 
kind, and 3 pencils three objects of the same kind, 
the teacher may ask how many ones there are in 2, 
in 3, in 4, etc. When the pupil comprehends that 4 
ones are meant by 4, and five ones by 5, etc., the 
teacher will tell the child that instead of saying that 
there are two ones in 2, we may use a word which 
means the same as one, and say there are two units in 
two. Then let the teacher question as follows: How 
many units in this number? (pointing to 3.) How 
many in this? (j^oiriting to 4, and so on to each.) Some 
one show me a number that has as many units in it as 
I hold up fingers (holding up, two, three, five, eight, 
etc., fingers). 

What does unit mean? 

Ans. One. 

What is a unit? 

Alls. A one. 

Yes, or we may say, "A unit is one, or a single 
thing." 

You may tell me what a unit is? 

Ans. A unit is one, or a single thing. 

Now, class, give me close attention before going to 
seats, as I have a hard question for you, and I want 
every httle boy and girl to hold up his hand ready 
to answer my question. 

Wliat is the largest number of units that can be 
written down or expressed by one figure? 

Ans. Nine units. 



66 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Let the above be regarded as the first step in the 
scheme. It will probably take several days to cover 
this first step, as there should be a great deal of drill 
upon each point, and a i-eview of the previous day's 
lesson, before taking up anything in advance. 

Second Step.— For the next step the teacher has 
several bundles of splints, eacli bundle containing ten 
splints. If the teacher is unable to obtain splints, 
small straight twigs of uniform size may be cut and 
tied up m bundles. The teacher now passes bundles 
to several children, asking how many units there are 
in each bundle. 

Ans. Ten units. 

Now, instead of saying here are ten units, we may 
say of this bundle that it is 1 ten. (This point is an 
arbitrary one, and the most direct and logical Avay is 
to tell it at once to the class. ) 

The teacher now gives a different number of bundles 
to different children, and asks : 

What have you? 

Ans. Two bundles. 

What may you say instead of bundles? 

Ans. Tens. 

What have you? tell me again. 

Ans. I have 3 tens. 

The teacher drills in this way with the others who 
were given bundles. 

Teacher (holding up one bundle). What is here? 

Ans. 1 ten. 

How many units? 

Ans. 10 units. 

Who can write 1 ten on the board in figures? 



ARITHMETIC. 67 

(Holding up two bundles.) What do I hold up? 

Ans. 2 tens. 

How many units? 

A71S. 20 units. 

You may write 2 tens upon the board. 

The teacher continues in this way till 9 tens is 
reached. 

The teacher now holds 2 bundles in one hand and 
tliree units in the other, and, asking what is in each 
hand, then puts the bundles and splints in one hand, 
asking. What is here? 

Ans. 2 tens and 3 units. 

Or how many units? 

Ans. 23 units. * 

Please write it upon the board. 

Now, holding up bundles and units in different com- 
binations, children are asked to write upon the board 
the number of tens and units. Continue in a similar 
manner till cliildren are thoroughly familiar with 
numbers to 99. 

Third Step. — Begin this step by review of foregoing 
matter in some such way as, Who can write upon the 
board a number containing tens and units? Read the 
figure which tells the number of units. Tlie figure 
which tells the number of tens. 

The teacher will now have ready several large bun- 
dles containing ten of the smaller bundles. Handing 
one of them to a child, 

How many tens have you in your bundle? 

Ans. 10 tens. 

How many units are there in 10 tens? 

Ans. 100 units. 



68 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Who can write 100 units on the board? 

Taking another bundle, the teacher asks, How many 
units in this bundle? 

Ans. 100 units. 

(Putting the two bundles together.) How many units 
in these? 

Ans. 200 units. 

Who can write 200 units on the board ? 

Same for 300 units. And now, if children have been 
thoroughly taught, such abstract questions as, "Who 
can write 400 units on the board? 500 units?" etc., may 
be asked. 

The rather difficult point of leading children to recog- 
nize the number of tens in 100 units, 200 units, etc., 
now follows. But if the bundles of 100 each, and the 
numbers 100, 200, etc., are used in close relation, the 
difficulty is easily overcome. 

Let the teacher now put in one pile on the desk 1 
bundle of 100 units (10 bundles of ten each), 2 bundles 
of ten each, and five splints, and then ask class how 
many units there are on the table. See that pupils 
recognize there are 1 hundred, 2 tens, and 5 units. 

Who can write a number on the board that shall ex- 
press as many splints as are here on the table? 

Child writes 125. 

Teacher now points to the lai'ge bundle, asking child 
to show what figure of the nmnberon the board means 
so many. Pointing to the 2 bundles of 10 each, teacher 
asks for the figure that I'epresents these ; then lor the 
figure that represents these (the five single splints). 

Drill with other numbers, as 156, 224, etc. 

Point to the place in which we find units written. 



ARITHMETIC. 69 

Pupil points to the first place. 

In what place do we find the tens? 

Arts. In the second place. 

Where, thinking of the units? 

Here the child will hkely say next to the units, and 
must be led to see that he should say to the left of 
units. 

In what place is the hundreds written? 

Ans. In the third place. 

Where, thiiikingof the tens? 

Ans. To the left. 

Who can tell me what is written in each place? 

Ans. Units is written in first place, etc. 

Who can tell where units, tens, and hundreds are 
written? 

Ans. Units is written in the first place, tens is writ- 
ten in the second place, or to the left of units, and 
hundreds is written in the third place, or to the left of 
tens. 

The teacher should be in no hurry to get to thou- 
sands. Let there be drill upon the above again and 
again, varying as much as possible, so that the whole 
knowledge in these steps sinks deep into the child's 
mind, and is thoroughly assimilated. When that 
tune comes, little trouble will be found in teaching 
what remains of Numeration. 

Numeration. — When a pupil is able to read any 
number composed of three figures, there is nothing to 
hinder his taking up numbers of two, three, or more 
periods. Let the teacher write on the board a number 
like the following, being careful to separate the periods 



70 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

a little more than would be necessary afterward : 1G7, 
286, 534. Now, put a book over any two of the groups, 
and let the scholar read the figures of the uncovered 
group. The teacher may now state that when num- 
bei-s have more than three figures, they are divided 
into groups of three figures each, beginning at the 
right hand. The name given to the second gi'oup is 
thousands (teacher writes thousands obliquely above 
that period) ; the name given to the third group is 
milhons (teacher writes millions above that group). 
Let the teacher next place a book over the first and 
second periods, and direct the pupil to read what is 
uncovered, and call the name of the group as soon as 
he reads the number. Moving the book along, the 
pupil is asked to read the second period and call the 
name above it. Then pass to the units period. Prac- 
tise now without the book. Next take numbers like 
these: 20,445, 4,262,676, 54,443,666. When able to read 
these without the name of the period written above, 
pass to numbers of four periods. It will be seen that 
when the pupil is ready to take the fourth period, 
nothing is necessary except to give him the name of 
that period. 

While learning to read, some numbers should be 
given him to write. 

Device for Drill with Decades.— Write upon a 
sheet of manila-paper, with a small carael's-hair brush 
and common writing-ink, the numbers from Oto 109 in 
the following order: 









ARITHMETIC 


t 






71 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 


50 


51 


52 


53 


54 


55 


56 


57 


58 


59 


60 


61 


62 


63 


64 


65 


66 


67 


68 


69 


70 


71 


72 


73 


74 


75 


76 


77 


78 


79 


80 


81 


82 


83 


84 


85 


86 


87 


88 


89 


90 


91 


92 


93 


94 


95 


96 


97 


98 


99 



100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 

This table can be made the basis of much useful drill 
in classes of different grades. It is intended that the 
work shall be oral. Let 1 be added to the numbers of 
each decade ; as, 1 and are 1, 1 and 10 ai'e 11, 1 and 20 
are 21, and so on through the first decade. In like 
manner, add 1 to all the other decades. Then add 2, 
then 3, and aU the numbers to 9, to each decade. In 
reciting, give to each pupil a decade. 

When in adding 2, the 9th decade is reached, viz., 
adding 2 to 8, the class may be Jisked what right- 
hand figure is given when 2 is added to 8. They reply, 
"Naught or zero." Here there is an inference for 
them that 2 and 8 give as a right-hand figure. So 2 
and 9 give 1 as a right-hand figure. Then 3 and 7 give 
0, 3 and 8 give 1, 3 and 9 give 2, as right-hand figures. 
The plan can now be readily seen. 

The value of the drill is the facility it gives in add- 
ing. Many persons who find no difficulty in telling 
instantly that 17 and 6 are 23, or that 18 and 7 are 25, 
have to halt a little and tliink twice to be sure that 77 
and 6 are 83, or that 68 and 7 are 75. Now a pupil, in 



72 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

the drill here suggested, goes through, in the decade of 
7 and 6, the following: 7 and 6 are 13, 17 and 6 are 23, 
27 and 6 are 33, 37 and 6 are 43, 47 and 6 are 53, 57 and 
6 are 63, 67 and 6 are 73, 77 and 6 are 83, 87 and 6 are 
93, 97 and 6 are 103, 107 and 6 are 113. In doing this, 
he learns so thoroughly that 7 and 6 in all combina- 
tions gives 3 as a right-hand figure, that when he adds a 
column of figures he will not hesitate and falter in his 
work when the sum progresses through the forties, 
fifties, sixties, etc. 

The decades can then be taken in reverse order, add- 
ing any number less than 10 to the 10th decade first, 
then to the 9th, and so on. 

It is only requisite to say that the use of the decadal 
table in subtraction is as necessary and varied as it is 
in addition. 

Counting by 2's, 3's, etc.— Variety of drill in 
addition is often secured by asking pupils to start with 
some number and count by 2's, 3's, etc. For instance, 
the chUd takes 1 as a basis, and counts by 2's as fol- 
lows: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc. Then starting from 2, he 
gives 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc., carrying the counting as far as 
the teacher deems best, which ought sometimes, in the 
case of larger numbers, to go to 100. 

It will be seen that all the numbers below the one by 
which the counting is done are taken as a basis in 
order to make all the combinations. In counting by 
5's, we should have 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, each as a starting- 
point. 

The above device, as will be readily recognized, is 
substantially the same as the Decades given else- 



! 



ARITHMETIC. 1^ 

where, except that in the Decades the pupil is aided 
by what the eye sees upon the chart. 

For Oral Practice in Adding and Subtracting 
3, 7, 1 1 .—Take the number 3, add it to 1, and succes- 
sively to the sums up to 50. Thus, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, etc. 
So with sevens : 1, 8, 15, 22, etc. 

Then take some large number, as 70 or 100, and go 
rapidly backwards, taking away three every time, or 
seven, or eleven. 

Borrowing One from the Next Column.— 
Primary scholars frequently find it difficult to under- 
stand the reason of "borrowing one from the next 
column" in subtracting one mnnber from another. 
The illustration given below will enable the teacher to 
make it clear to them. Suppose it is required to sub- 
tract 125 from 412. Have a number of one-dollar bills, 
ten-cent pieces, and pennies. Tell the class that the 
pennies will be called units, the ten-cent pieces 
tens, and the one-dollar bills hundreds. The question 
then becomes this: from four bills, one ten-cent piece, 
and two pennies take one bill, two ten-ceiit pieces, 
and five pennies. Ask the one having the four bills, 
one ten-cent piece, and two pennies to give you five 
pennies. As that will be found impossible, exchange 
the ten-cent piece for ten pennies. The pupil will then 
have twelve, and ou giving the five will see that seven 
are left. Then ask for two ten-cent pieces, and as the 
pupil will have none, exchange one of the one-dollar bills 
for ten ten-cent pieces. On giving up two of them, eight 
will be left. After this ask for one ono-doUar bill which, 
taken from the three bills left, will leave two. The 



74 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



child will thus see that there are left two one-dollar 
bills, eight ten-cent pieces, and seven pennies, or 287. 

Another Plan — Write an example on the board 
in this way : 

744 = 6 hundreds + 13 tens + 14 
367 = 3 " -I- G " -1- 7 

377 3 7 7 

Explain that 744 is equivalent to 6 hundred, 13 tens, 
and 14. In the same way, explain that 3G7 is equiva- 
lent to 3 hundreds, 6 tens, and 7. Next show that 7 
cannot be taken from 4, so we borrow one of the tens 
from the 40. 7 tens cannot be taken from 3 tens, so we 
borrow 1 hundred, or 10 tens, which, with the 3 tens, 
makes 13 tens; giving for the whole G hundreds, 13 
tons, and 14. Follow the same plan with the other 
number, and complete the subtraction. 

A Form of Drill by Diagrams.— Draw upon the 
board the accompanying diagrams with colored cray- 



2 








11 




3 




18 






6 




1 


4 




IL 






ons. The teacher may point to different nmnbers, and 
the pupil states the result, having used the number in 
the centre of the diagram by adding, subtracting, or 



Arithmetic. 75 

multiplying as previously directed. The centre num- 
ber is changed as soon as the combination becomes 
familiar. As seat- work, the pupil may be directed to 
begin with some figure and write upon his slate the 
results, going round the diagram towards the right 
or the left. If there is danger of copying from each 
other, one lino of pupils can be directed to go round 
to the right, and another to the left. 

Rapid Addition.— Special prominence should be 
given to the combinations of numbei'S that form ten ; 
as, 9 and 1, 8 and 2, 7 and 3, 6 and 4, etc. Again, the 
pupil should be taught to combine rapidly small num- 
bers into larger numbers, that when placed together 
will form ten ; as, 1, 2, 4, and 3. The pupil should say 
simply, seven and three are ten. In adding a column 
of this sort, 3, 3, 4, 6, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 1, 2, the pupil 
should say "ten, twenty, thirty, forty." Of course 
ordinary columns will not always be divisible into 
tens, but the principle holds good — that when the eye 
can be trained to see large numbers m the combina- 
tion of small ones as quickly as the individual small 
numbers can be pronounced, there will be a great sav- 
ing of time. 

For Busy Teachers— Drill in Fundaniental 
Rules. — A teacher can save much time and labor by 
the use of a chart in the arithmetic class. 

Take a wide piece of paper and across the top write 
the letters of the alphabet. Under these write any 
numbers that may be desired. If the class is learning 
to add numbers, all that the teacher need say is, "Add 
F, D, and G." Or, if the class is in subtraction, multi- 



76 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

plication, or division, "From L take S," "Multiply H 
by J, "etc. 

Fractions can be written instead of wliole numbers. 
Dollars and cents can also be used. 

Device for Detecting Incorrect Answers in 
Addition. — When pupils have added the numbers 
given, draw a line under the result and direct them 
to add the numbers again, including the answer. If 
the work is cori-ect, the last result will be double the 
first. Pupils will thus prove their own work, and the 
teacher can see at a glance whether the work is cor- 
rect or not, thus saving much time. 

Device for Teaching Multiplication.— Have a 

number of lines composed of dots or small disks, mak- 
ing the dots or disks of each line with chalk of a 
different color. To teach the multiplication of two by 
three, for instance, show that the sign of multiplica- 
tion (x) means times. Direct pupil to point off three 
yellow dots, then three red dots, — How many in all? 
How many are three taken twice ? How many are 
two times three ? Let the work then be wi-itten thus: 
2x3=6: 

Drill in Rapid Adding, Subtracting, Multiply- 
ing, and Dividing. — As a general exercise for the 
whole school, just after the session opens in the morn- 
ing, or in the three or four minutes that sometimes 
remain before the time for closing, an example of this 
sort may be given: Let the pupils take their slates 
and add to 20 the number 4, subtract 10, multiply 
by 30, add 80, divide by 5, add 1, multiply by 9, take 



ARITHMETIC. 77 

away 699. What is left ? Of course, the question can 
be varied in any way, the object being simply to 
induce I'apidity and exactness of work. 

If there is not sufficient time for using slates, let the 
teaclipr give something like the following, requii'ing 
pupils to solve mentally, keeping up with the exercise 
as stated : Multiply 4 by 6, add 10, add 6, divide by 2, 
multiply by 5, subtract 9, subtract 8, subtract 3, divide 
by A. Raise hands all "who have an answer. "What 
is yours ? yours ? yours ? etc. Those who gave IGO 
gave the correct answer. 

Such exercises can be varied, sometimes making 
them so simple that very young students in arith- 
metic can follow them, and again so difficult that only 
the most proficient in school are able to state the 
correct result. 

Teach Long Division before Short Division, 

as short division is seldom used, and after it is taught, 
it lessens in no way the difiiculty of teaching long 
division. On the other hand, when a pupil has learned 
long division, the teacher has but to mention short 
division, show how an example is worked, and the 
pupil takes it without putting further time upon it. 

In long division, the form is the difficult thing. 
We. give below a series of examples each representing 
a step. The arbitrary matters about long division 
must be told. See that the pupil has thorough famili- 
arity with each step before going to the next. To 
secure this famiharity, the teacher will have to supply 
other examples similar to each step. 



78 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



2)426(213 
4 



3)693(231 
6 



4)448(112 


4)8084(2021 


4 


8 


4 





4 





8 


8 


8 


8 





4 




4 


2)496(248 


3)6343(2114 


4 


6 


9 


3 


8 


3 


16 


4 


16 


3 




12 




12 





ARITHMETIC. 


6)672(112 
6 


7)791(113 

7 


7 


9 


6 


7 


13 


21 


13 


21 


8)834(103 
8 


5)905(181 
5 


2 


40 





40 


34 


S 


24 


5 


9)189(21 
18 


9)1890(210 
18 


9 


9 


9 


9 












11)242(23 
32 


11)2420(220 

22 


22 


22 


22 


22 













79 



80 SCHOOL DEVICES. 



12)384(32 
36 


25)575(23 
50 


24 
24 


75 
75 


25)3275(131 
25 




77 

75 




25 
25 





Do a great deal of work with divisors containing but 
two figures. A way to pass to divisors of three or 
more figures will now readily suggest itself. 

Of Value in G. C. D. and L. C. M.— Any num- 
ber is divisible by three, if the sum of its digits is di- 
visible by three. 

Any number is divisible by four if it end with two 
or more ciphers, or if the niunber expressed by its two 
right hand digits is divisible by four. 

Any number is divisible by eight if the number 
expressed by its three right-hand figures is divisible 
by eight. 

Any number is divisible by seven, eleven, or thir- 
teen, if the units' period and the thousands' period are 
the same. 

Diagrams for Teaching Fractions.— Probably 
no portion of the arithemetic gives more trouble to 



ABITHMETIC. 



81 



scholars than fractions. This difficulty may be les- 
sened to a considerable extent by the use of diagrams. 
For instance, addition and subtraction may be taught 
in this way : 




i 


i 


1 


X 




4 



By these diagrams the pupil will at once see that 
l+l = i,— that i+i=f,— that i = f— that i + i + J -= 1. 
He will readily see that ? — :l=i, — that 1— 1=:}. Other 
diagi-ams of a like nature can be easily invented. 

I3 aaultiphcation a figure of this sort may be used : 



* i i 



i 


1 


1 

IT 


1 

'9 


h 


1 


1 


1 

-5 


1 
9 



* i i III 



82 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



The pupil will readily see that i of i = ^,— that I of 
1 = 1, -that i of i = h 

Other diagrams will readily occur to the teacher. 

In division the following figure, divided into fifths 
and tenths, will show that | is contained 11 times in i. 







1 








iV 









The following diagram will show that f is contained 
twice in f. 



Chart for Teaching Fractions.— Addition and 
subtraction of fractions can be taught to advantage 
by taking small circles of different colored papers, 
and dividing them into halves, quarters, etc. After 
cutting them into the divisions required, paste them 
upon a sheet of manilla paper as shown in the dia- 
gram. If, for example, the pupil is required to add 
f to f, by taking circles that are divided into fourths, 
it will be plain to him that the result is f , which he 
will also see is equivalent to l^. 



ARITHMETIC. 



83 





^^ ^^ ^Ih 
^57 ^57 ^57 



^[^ 



^[^ 



(9^ 



(9^ 



(9^ 















84 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

If it is desired to subtract | from a whole niiinber, 
then by taking a circle which is divided into eighths, 
the pupil will see at a glance that f remain. 

Multiplication cf Fractions.— Let each of the 
pupils be provided with narrow slips of paper. Sup- 
pose it is required to multiply i by f . Direct the 
pupils to divide one of these slips into four equal 
parts. They will then see what is meant by \. They 
should then be directed to divide one of these fourths 
into three equal pieces, and take two of them. The 
class are then asked how many times they can take 
two such pieces from the original paper. It will be 
apparent to them that it would be six times, and that 
in taking these two pieces out once they take a sixth 
part of the whole, or that f of J is \. 

Incorrect Reading of Certain Fractions.— 

Many teachers and pupils read the fraction ^U, one 
one-lmndredth ; the fraction y| o, two one-Jnmdredths ; 
and in the same way -x'U, too, etc. The incorrectness 
of this may be shown by writing the fraction x^o twice 
on the board, and in another place the fraction tutj- 
Pointing to theiirst two, the teacher may ask, "What 
are these?" The pupils must logically say "Two one- 
hundredths." When the teacher points to the other 
fraction, the class must answer "Two-hundredths." 

An Aid in Learning to Read Decimals.— Often 

n class finds difficulty in remembering the names of 
tiie places in decimal notation. Confusion is hkely to 
arise when the number of decimal places is four, five, 
six, or seven. For instance, the decimal .42606 will 



Aritemetig. 85 

often be read ten-thousandths, instead of hundred- 
thousandths. The difficulty comes from the pupil 
being unable to tell at once whether the fifth place is 
ten-thousandths or hundred-thousandths. A drill upon 
the following scheme would prevent this. Write this 
upon the board : 



8 



Then ask what is the third place, the sixth place, 
the ninth place. 

The pupil in replying thousandths, miUionths, bil- 
lionths, associates in his mind the order third, sixth, 
ninth place, with the guiding names, thousandths, 
million ths, billionths. Let the teacher continue his 
progress by threes thi'ough the places of notation, 
by asking next what the name of the first place is, 
what the fom-th, what the seventh. After this let the 
scholar discover that the hundredths, himdred-thou- 
sandths, and hundred-millionths places are related 
to the second i^lace in progression by three. When 
the pupil sees these relations, question upon the name 
of the places by calling their numbers until complete 
mastery is obtained. 

Development Lesson in Multiplication of 
Decimals. 
Teacher. Since we fii'st express, read, add, and sub- 



86 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

tract decimal fractions as integers, bow shall we mul- 
tiply a decimal fraction by a decimal fraction? 

Pupil. As integers. 

T. Multiply, then, one hundred twenty -five thou- 
sandths by five-tenths. 



.125 
.5 

625 



.T. "What have you multiplied? 

P. 125. 

T. How does 125 compare in value with .125? 

P. 125 is one thousand times as great as .125. 

T. How, then, does your product compare with the 
true product? 

P. It is one thousand times as great. 

T. How do you find the true product? 

P. By dividing 625 by 1,000. 

T. How do you do this? 

P. By pointing off three places from the right of the 
product. .125 

T. Do this, and read the result? -^ 

P. Six hundi-ed twenty -five thousandths. .625 

T. By what have you multiplied? 

P. By 5. 

T. By what were you required to multiply? 

P. By .5. 

T. How does 5 compare in value with .5? 

P. 5 is ten times as great as .5. 

T. How, then, does the product .625 compare in 
value with the true product? 



ARITHMETIC. 87 

P. It is ten times as great. 

T. How do you find the true product? 

P. By dividing .0:35 by 10. -125 

T. Do this, and read the result. 

P. Six hundred twenty-five ten thousandths. .0625 
Solve several examples in the same way, and then 
lead the class to infer the rule. 

« 
Drill for Percentage.— In order to show how all 

fractions can he changed into per-cents, draw four per- 
pendicular lines on the board, and in the first column 
write a common fraction ; in the next the same value 
written as hundredths, and in the last the same as per 
cent. Thus : 



I. Fraction. 


As hundredths. 


As per-cents. 


i 


50 hundredths 


.50 


* 


33i 


.33^ 



Write a number of common fractions and let the pu- 
pil fill out the other two columns. 

Give Frequently Examples in Words instead 
of Figures.— In giving original examples, let them 
frequently be given in words, not figures. The arith- 
metical questions which arise in actual life are not in 
the shape of figures, but we translate them into these 
from our usual form of speech. Therefore, examples 
given in the forni of words are much easier to solve, 
because more natui*al. 

Aids in I nterest.^An easy way to state fractions 
of a month, provided the number of days is divisible 
by 3, is by placing them in the form of tenths, thus : 



88 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

3 days = .1 month; 6 days = .2; 9 days = .3; 12 days 
= .4; 15 days = .5; 18 days = .6; 21 days = .7; 24 
days = .8; 27 days = .9. Two months and eighteen 
days woidd be written thus: 2.0 months. 

It is worth remembering that from any day of any 
month to the same day of the following month, there 
are as many days as in the first-mentioned month. 

Number of the Month.— It is necessai-y for work- 
ing problems in interest that the pupil be able to tell 
instantly the number of each month in the year. 
Too many teachers pass this matter without giving it 
any attention. A little drill upon the following scheme 
will make pupils confident of the number, instead of 
having to count, as many are obliged to do. 

Write the abbreviations of the months in order 
upon the board, num.bering them. At once it will be 
seen that March, the first month of spring, is the third 
month; that June, the first of the summer months, is 
the sixth; that September, the first of the autumn 
months, is the i^inth ; that December-, the first of the 
winter months, is the twelfth. With these firmly 
fixed, the number of any other montli is told instantly. 
For instance, May is the fifth mouth, being immedi- 
ately before June, the sixth. It is peihaps well to add 
in this place that it is just as important the pupil 
should know the number of days in each month. Do 
not teach that old quatrain "Thirty days hath Sep- 
tember," etc., for the pupil will rely upon it at first, 
and is afterwards never able to get rid of it. 

Every one knows the number of days in February. 
Then all the other months have thirty-one days except 
four. All, then, that mod be done is to drill thor- 



ABITELMETIG. ' 89 

oughly that April, June, September, and November 
are the months having thirty days each. 

Form for Partial Payments.— Where a number 
of payments are given, the whole work will be pre- 
served and the operation made plain to the student if 
the work is stated as shown below. The dates are all 
placed one above the other in proper order, with the 
earliest date at the bottom. Subtract this last date 
from the next above and place the result below the 
line. Subtract this last date from the one next above 
it, and place the number of years, months, etc., below 
the first number of years and months, and so on for 
all the dates, connecting each date with its own re- 
sultmg years, months, and days by a dotted line. At 
the right may be placed the interest of $1 for the given 
time, and at the right of the dates may be placed the 
payments. The annexed work will show what is 
meant. 



1878—10—23 

1876— 2—3 I 25. 
1873— 4— 5 $200. 
1872— 1— 1 $100. 
1868 6— 5 



3— 6-26.... 214^. 

1— 3- 4....075|. 

2— 9— 27.... 1691. 
2— 8-21.... 163i. 



To Insure Thorough Understanding of 
Cube Root. — In teaching cube root by blocks— and 
in this connection it is well to remind teachers that in 
this subject blocks should be used if possible, as in no 
other way can the work be made equally clear — send 



90 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

the pupil to the board to extract the cube root of a 
number, and, when he has found the root, direct him 
to explain, illustrating each step with the blocks as he 
proceeds. Be sure that the pupil handles the blocks as 
he explams. In tliis way it is possible to see if he is 
familiar with each step of the work. 
Read chapter xi. Fitch's " Lectiu-es on Teaching." 



PERSONAL SUGGESTIONS. 91 



CHAPTER VI. 

PERSONAL SVGGE8T10N8. 

Preparation of "Work Criticism The Language of the 

Teacher Points Relative to Recitations Creating 

Doubt On Explanation Using a New Word 

Questioning A Mistake Often Unrecognized A Cau- 
tion Expostulation Don 'ts. 

Preparation of Work.— A cei^tain amount of 
preparation for each lesson is an absolute necessity. 
The general plan and arrangement of the subject must 
be made beforehand, in order to gain the full value of 
the lesson, for there is not time to decide on the spur 
of the moment the most important parts, or how they 
shall be presented. 

In every recitation, the two principal points to which 
tlie attention should be directed are the calling-up of 
that previously learned (review), and the impai"ting of 
new knowledge (advance work). In doing this, the 
teacher will find it most profitable to take up that part 
of the review most intimately connected with the 
advance work, thus leading the pupil on logically 
from one truth to another. In a thoughtful prepara- 
tion of a subject, these questions naturally arise: 



92 SCHOOL DEVIOm. 

What portion of the review work leads most easily 
into the advance work? What parts of the advance 
work slaall be brought into the greatest prominence? 
What questions shall be asked, and how comprehensive 
an answer required? In what way and to what extent 
may the blackboard be used? What amount of time 
shall be devoted to each division of the work? Many 
minor points can also be introduced, which will in- 
crease the interest in the subject and make the recita- 
tions spirited. Without such a preparation, all efforts 
in teaching will be rambling and, in great part, point- 
less. 

Eead the chapter, The Practice or Art of Education, 
in Payne's "Lectures on Education." 

Criticism. — The folloAving points of criticism are 
introduced to aid teachers in criticising their own or 
others' work. It must prove of benefit to a teacher 
to ask himself, seriously, "Have I zeal and anima- 
tion in my manner of conducting a recitation ? Have 
I sympathy and interest in those who are under my 
cai-e? Is my plan logical and my matter correct?" 
I. Manner. 

1. Animation. 

2. Variety. 

3. Expression of sympathy and interest. 
II. Teaching. 

1. Correctness of matter taught. 

2. Thoroughness. 

3. Emphasis on important points. 

4. Rapidity. 

5. Conciseness. 

6. Variety, frequency, and emphasis in drill. 



PERSONAL SUGGESTIONS. 93 

in. Order. 

1. Attention gained and maintained. 

2. Prompt and cheerful obedience. 

3. Quietness, steadiness, and interest with 
which scholars work. 

The Language of the Teacher.— It is of the 
greatest importance that one who is to give instruc- 
tion should make such use of language as will con- 
vey the exact meaning intended, without a jiossibility 
of misconception. The unwise choice of a word often 
acts like a misplaced switch at a railroad centre, — the 
thinker is thrown off on the wrong track. It is no 
defence for the teacher to say that his powers of ex- 
pression are not good ; it makes him only a confessedly 
poor teacher, since the essential difference between 
good and poor teaching is the ability, or inability, to 
make ideas clear to the mind of the pupil. By the 
careless use of words, ideas wholly different from 
those intended to be conveyed, may become fixed in 
the scholar's mind, that will never be eradicated. 
Precision can he acquired by the dihgent study of 
synonymes, and by a constant effort on the part of the 
teacher to make his words express the exact idea in- 
tended ; and to do this he must train himself to habits 
of exact thought. If the thought does not stand out, 
sharply defined, in one's own mmd, it is idle to exi^ect 
it to be clearly seen by others. 

Points Relative to Recitations.— There is far too. 
mucli machine work in the way some teachers "hear 
a lesson." It is not enough that one should listen to 
that which has been prepared, assign an advance 



94 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

lesson, and then dismiss the class. When a recita- 
tion is regarded by the teacher in this hght, the 
pupils will naturally and surely come to regard the 
lesson as a task ; and when this occurs, interest will 
fail. There are a number of points that shoidd be con- 
sidered in eveiy recitation : 1. The pui^iis' powers of 
observation should be brought into prominence. 2. 
They should bo taught to reason out that which is dif- 
ficult. 3. They shoidd be taught to recall that which 
has been prepared before, bearing upon the same 
subject. 4. An easy, graceful mode of expressing 
ideas should be cultivated. 5. The pupils should be 
aided as much as possible in acquiring confidence and 
an easy manner of reciting. G. The teacher must give 
some positive knowledge, supplementary to that con- 
tained in the lesson. Text-books should be used 
merely as suggestions for lessons. 
Other points to be considered are these : 
The hearing of the lesson, m order to see how much 
of it the pupil comprehends. Explaining that which 
the pupil is not able to comprehend. Drilhng on the 
review to fix in mind that which has already been 
learned. The assignment of the next lesson. Some 
time should be spent in looking over the advance 
lesson, and in suggesting ways by which the pupils can 
avoid difficulties and arrive at the correct results 
most easily ; but in doing this, do not give too much 
help. The teacher's province is to direct and suggest 
ways and means. 

Creating Doubt.— In calling the attention of pu- 
pils to a mispronounced word, give the correct pro- 
nvmciation and stop there. Do not say, for instance. 



PERSONAL SUGGESTIONS. 95 

"This word is pronounced franchlz — not franchiz;" 
for this eventually leads to doubt as to which is cor- 
rect. There are scores of other ways in which a 
teacher, unless careful, will destroy the permanency of 
impressions, by leaving in the mmd some accomj)ani- 
ment that at last will simply create doubt. 

On Explanation.— In explaining a fact to a pupil, 
it is important that the teacher be first thoroughly 
familiar with it himself. He cannot make a point 
clearer to another than it is to his own mind. He 
should also consider the ability of the pupils before 
him. With some it is necessary to use much more 
careful explanation than with others; therefore, to 
reach the intelligence of all, make the idea simple, 
clear, and to the point. The teacher, however, should 
not use such language as will imply that ho regards 
Mmself talking to inferior intellects. Acts of conde- 
scension on the part of the teacher will surely be re- 
sented, as they should be. A figurative illustration 
should be used only when it makes the thought 
clearer; and all novel forms of expression, or odd 
ways of putting things, shoidd be used with care, as 
they may hide the thought intended to be conveyed. 

Using a New Word.— When a teacher uses a new 
word in his work, he should write that word upon the 
board, so that its form may come to the eye just after 
the sound reaches the ear. In this way the student 
will associate the correct pronunciation with the 
proper fonn of the word. 

Questioning. — Particular attention should be 



96 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

given by a teacher to his manner of stating questions. 
The points to be aimed at are : First, clearness ; — the 
pupil has a right to demand this. Second, such a 
statement of the question as will not suggest the an- 
swer. Third, a question should not be asked in this 
way: "The Scotch came into the northern part of 

?" Ansicer. "England.' Nor thus: "Is it ? 

or is it ?" The pupil very quickly learns to read 

the correct answer in the manner or tone of voice used 
by his instructor. It is hardly necessary to add that 
good English should be used in the statement of a 
question. In asking for a definition of the planets, 
for instance, it is a defect to say, "The planets are 
what?" Or, in chemistrj', " A molecule is what?" 

A Mistake Often Unrecognized.— The word 

Louisiana is mispronounced by many teachers who 
are usually correct in their pronunciation, by giving 
to the second syllable, which shoidd have the sound 
of short i, the sound of long e. The reason for the 
mistake arises from the spelling given by Webster, to 
indicate the pronunciation, Loo' e-ze-a'-na, printing 
the second syllable " e" and placing the secondary 
accent on the first syllable. Now, if the word is pro- 
nounced with the secondary accent on the first sylla- 
ble, the second syllable must have the sound of ob- 
scure "e," which does not differ materially fi'om the 
short sound of " i. " 

A Caution.— Henceforth, see if you cannot pro- 
nounce the word "recess" properly, putting the aq- 
cent on the last syllable. 



PERSONAL SUGGESTIONS. 97 

Expostulation. — You talked in a high key all day. 
There was something unpleasant in your work, and 
you did not knovs^ what it was. What is spoken un- 
pleasantly is heard unpleasantly, and your pupils felt 
there was something grating, something unpleasant, 
in their teacher's work. They could not tell, perhaps, 
what it was, but, nevertheless, they felt that something 
was not what it ought to be. It was the high tone of 
voice that you persisted in using, which has become 
so fixed a habit with you that you can scarcely break 
it. Your voice has become rasping, thin, and hard. 
It wdl take weeks, perhaps months, of persistent ef- 
fort before you can overcome the habit and keep your 
voice where it belongs, in low, smooth tones. 

Don 'ts.— Don't be afraid to say. "I don't know, "or, 
if necessary, "I was mistaken." If an error has been 
made, it is both more manly and more pi'ofitable to ac- 
knowledge it. You are setting a bad example and 
lowering yourself in the estimation of your pupils if 
you persist in maintaining that which you see is false. 
Teachers are too loath to confess ignorance on any sub- 
ject that may be brought up by the pupils. A teacher 
cannot be expected to be informed on all subjects, and 
it is better to admit that you do not know than to give, 
at a venture, a reply that may be misleading. 

Don't get into the way of using the index finger in 
gesture, as many teachers do. It is neither graceful 
nor forceful. 

When a pupU has given an incorrect answer, do 
not shake the head and say No, no, but quietly ask 
the question of another. 

In your illustrations and talks, quote nothing, 
7 



98 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

through temptation to say something amusing, that 
does not fit accurately and logically your topic. 

Don't talk over school matters with every one you 
meet. They will perhaps talk to you about former 
teachers, and your part of the conversation may be 
misconstrued and enlarged upon. A teacher must be 
discreet. 

Especially do not make complaints. Do not criticise 
your predecessor's work, or the condition in which 
you find the school. He probably left friends, and of 
these you will thus make enemies. Speak kindly of 
those who were before you, or do not speak of them at 
all. If it is necessary to make complaints, let them 
be made to the proper school officers. Your school 
will be more successful if it is the subject of but little 
comment. 

Do not say, when hearing a recitation, "Go on, 
" Go ahead," " Proceed," etc. It is far better to set an 
example of courtesy to your pupils by saying, ' ' Con- 
tinue, Mary," or "Continue, John." 

Do not scold. After the novelty has worn off, your 
sharp speeches will cease to be effective. Moreover, 
the most forcible language is that which is delivered 
calmly and dispassionately. Gentlemanly and lady- 
like bearing toward pupils on the part of teachers is 
almost sure to win a like return. 

Treat your pupils as equals.— Nothing will bring 
them up to your own level as quickly as this. Make 
your pupils self-respectful by showing respect to them. 

Don't worry. Make a vigorous effort to throw aside 
all care when school closes. Eemember that nothing 
is to be gained, but much lost, by carrying through 
the twenty -four hours the burdens that should come 



PEE80NAL SUGGESTIONS. 99 

only during school hours. If the teacher can enter the 
schoolroom fresh each morning, the battle is half won 
at the beginning. 

Don't be more ready to criticise than to commend. 
Factious criticism will cause pupils to think that noth- 
iiig they can do will he just right in the teacher's eyes, 
and they will soon cease trying to excel. A few words 
of commendation wiU often prove a great incentive 
to effort. 

Do not make any sudden or radical change in your 
manner of conducting a recitation, or in the discijDline 
of your school. If you have decided to make a change, 
do it gradually. 

Do not get into the habit of making apologies. Be 
careful that the occasion does not arise where an apol- 
ogy by the teacher is needed. 

It is natural that a teacher, dealing with minds less 
informed than his own, should gradually come to feel 
above the general level of humanity. Don't allow 
yourself to become conceited by reason of your sur- 
roundings. 



100 SCHOOL DEVICES, 



CHAPTER VII. 

SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 

Beginning School Putting Back A Few Suggestions 

Upon Discipline Punishments A Problem Tardi- 
ness Rest Periods Ventihition Lighting 

School Gymnastics Information To Give an Idea 

how to Compare Dull Recitations Alternating Stud- 
ies Quiet Periods Division of Class Plan for Get- 
ting Answers from each Pupil of a Large Class A School 

Diary Time Given for Questioning Original Exam- 
ples and Illustrations Repetition Necessity of Re- 
views Graphic Examinations The Value of an Object 

Error-box Quotations Questioning Pupils to 

Keep a Note-book Bulletin-board Reporting Exer- 
cises A Test of Quick Observation Debating Club 

Schoolroom Decoration Suggestions About Recep- 
tions Closing Exercises. 

Beginning School. — Be at the schoolroom eai'ly. 
On the morning of the first day be the first one there, 
and, m general, the teacher should be present when the 
room is opened. A spirit of lawlessness is apt to arise 
among pupils left without restraint, which may ex- 
tend beyond the opening of the session. 

Begin promptly. Scholars cannot be expected to be 
prompt in their attendance if the teacher does not set 



SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 101 

the example. Care in having all things move by 
"clock-work" is not lost in its general effect on a 
school. 

Say but little when opening your school. Especially 
do not lay down a great number of rules— these can be 
made as occasion demands. Do not boast of what you 
can do, or of what you intend to do. Children are 
keen to detect boastfulness and to discredit those who 
make use of it. 

Take the names as the classes are called. This will 
save much confusion and loss of time. If, however, 
the teacher desires all the names at the opening of the 
session, blank slips should be distributed, on which the 
pupil may write his name and the classes he jDroposes 
to enter. 

Set all the pupils to work as soon as possible. Idle- 
ness is the precursor of mischief, and this on the first 
day means continual trouble. If the classes cannot be 
formed at once, give those who are waiting some re- 
view work, or tell them a short story and ask them to 
write it out on their slates or on paper. 

Make out an Order of Exercises for your own use be- 
fore opening the school. Even though it be your first 
term in the school, you can find out from the pupils or 
school officers what classes are to be formed. You 
can thus intelligently organize the school. 

Show no sign of indecision. Pupils are quick to no- 
tice this, and make their estimate of jour character 
accordingly. Hesitation is confessed weakness. 

On the second day have a permanent Order of Exer- 
cises made out and posted. Uncertainty in regard to 
the time of their recitations demoralizes the pupils and 
delays tlie actual commencement of work. 



102 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Putting Back.— It is a mistake to put cliUdren 
back in their studies. It has a disheartening effect, 
and it can easily be seen at what a disadvantage a 
child is placed who has lost interest in a study. There 
is no necessity for putting back. The fundamental prin- 
ciples of any study can be taught in one place as well as 
in another. If a child in percentage stmnbles over his 
fractions, give him extra help and make that subject 
clear to hun. If your pupils in an advanced grade 
cannot write a simple sentence correctly, put them 
into rhetoric and take up sontence-wi'iting. If they 
are in the Fourth Reader when they should be in the 
Second, don't discourage them by putting them back 
into the Second Reader, but get some simple story- 
books or bright story-papers and let the reading les- 
son be from those. The best " putting back" is when 
the pupil himself perceives his deficiency and feels 
the need of simpler work ; but the teacher should ex- 
ercise tact in bringing about this condition of mind. 

A Few Suggestions Upon Discipline.— It is 

hard to write it, but cases of truancy, fighting, vul- 
garity, profanity, and stealing do occur in many 
schools. In cases of truancy, communicate with the 
parents at once ; reason with the pupil, and as a last 
resort call on the truant officer or constable. 

For untruthfulness, let the pupil feel what it is to 
have others lose confidence in him. Often it will be 
well to let him realize this loss of confidence a long 
time. 

In cases of fighting, keep the pupil in at recesses, 
giving him his recess after the others ; oblige him to 
come into the schoolroom as soon as he como::! upon 



8CH00LB00M SUGGESTIONS. 103 

the ground, morning and noon, and keep him after 
school until others have gone home. 

For profanity and vulgarity, separate the pupil en- 
tirely from others, and suspend for second offence. 

Steahng may be pretty effectually dealt with by sus- 
pension, apology, and restoration of the stolen article. 

Impertinence and disrespect to the teacher, providing 
the teacher has not brought it on, should be apologized 
for in presence of those before whom the act was com- 
mitted. 

Punishments.— The nearer you can reduce punish- 
ments to a minimum the better. Occasions sometimes 
arise, however, when some foiTn of punishment seems 
necessary ; but in inflicting this be careful not to in- 
jure the pupil's self-respect. Personal indignities or 
torture should never be used, and any form of ridicule 
should be used sparingly. The pupil should never be 
made to feel that he is punished by his teacher through 
any vindictive feeling. Threats of punishment should 
not be made. Act i)romptly when occasion demands, 
but do not talk about v»diat you ivill do. It seems 
hardly necessary to add that study should never be 
used as a means of punishment. 

A Problem. — Many teachers have found that the 
root of all evil in teaching is whispering, and it is a 
problem with most teachers how to suppress it. 

A word or two of communication that arises from 
mere forgetfulness should not be looked upon as a se- 
rious evil ; but wilful whispering is a demorahzing factor 
in a school and shoidd be suppressed at once. Some 
teachers have found that caUing for a report at the close 



104 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

of the session from those who have broken the rule has 
the effect of diminishing the annoyance. It is wise to 
meet the matter squarely. Show the pupils that dis- 
order of any kind hinders the progress of the school ; 
that whispering is a disorder, and that whispering in 
the presence of others is a rudeness that would not be 
tolerated in their homes, and that good manners are 
as essential in the schoolroom as elsewhere. Much of 
the necessity for communication can be avoided by al- 
lowing a moment or two at the opening of the session 
for each one to obtain any article that has been for- 
gotten. Do not be continually talking upon this sub- 
ject to the school. Disorder of any kind is usually 
attributable to but few. Treat these privately. The 
eifect on them and on yom* school will be better for 
such a course. 

Tardiness. — Much confusion and annoyance re- 
sult from the late entrance of a few pupils at the 
morning or afternoon opening. From the numerous 
plans for securing xjrompt attendance given below, 
the teacher may find something that will suit his case. 

(a) In the first place, the teacher should never be 
late himself. He should be present some time before 
the opening, and give to each one coming in a pleasant 
greeting. 

(b) In cold weather be sure that the voova is warm 
enough, at least fifteen minutes before the opening. 
Don't compel the pupils to be late in order to find a 
warm room. 

(c) For five or ten minutes after roll-call some 
teachers have an object lesson in science, bringhig in 
objects upon which to talk to the scholars, as leaves 



SGHOOLnOOM SUGGESTIONS. 105 

or grasses, rocks, mosses, etc. If this is made attrac- 
tive, the pupils will try not to miss it, 
! {d) Tickets may be given small pupils for each day's 
punctual attendance — a certain number of these tick- 
ets entitling the possessor to an earlier dismissal on 
Friday afternoon, 

(e) Pupils may be kept after school the same length 
of time they lost at the opening of the session. 

Have the last bell rung five minutes before the open- 
ing of school, that sufficient warning may be given. 

Some teachers have a portion of space reserved on a 
blackboard near the entrance door on which is writ- 
ten the word "Tardiness." Pupils coming in late 
are required to write their names beneath this word, 
together with the time of entrance, as 9 :10, 9 :15, etc. , 
and make up the time at the close of the session. 
They erase their names before leaving. 

Other teachers require pupils entering late to write 
their names on a card or slip of paper, with the time 
of entrance, and leave it at the desk. Report of these 
cards is made to the i^ai'ents at the end of the month. 

Another plan is to grant a holiday to the whole 
school on the first Monday of each mouth, provided 
there has been no instance of tardiness during the pre- 
ceding month. Under such circumstances each pupil 
is unwilling to be the one to deprive all the others of 
a holiday. 

Pupils who are thoroughly interested in school-work 
will seldom be late, but there are always some who 
appear five or ten minutes after the opening of the 
session. A special effort must be made to bring these 
in on time ; for the intei-ruption of late entrances de- 
moralizes the school at the start. It may be that 



106 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

pupils come late to avoid the dulness of tlie opening 
exercises. A long roll-call, and the reading of Scriptui-e 
not readily understood by youthful minds, may be of 
this nature. Make the morning exercises so bright 
and cheerful that to miss them will be felt a loss. Let 
the Scriptui-e readmg be short but appropriate; and 
let it be preceded and followed by music, if possible. 
Do away with the roll-call, and mark absences in your 
register while the pupils are studying. 

Some teachers have a "Tardy Fi-iday." On that 
day all who have not been tardy during the term up 
to that time are dismissed an hour earlier than the 
others. All who have been tardy are required to re- 
main. 

Another device for securing punctuality is to spend 
the first fifteen minutes at the opening of the session 
in talking about something that is transpiring in the 
world at the time. The teacher asks a question in re- 
gard to some notable public event ; if no one can an- 
swer it, the question is repeated the next morning, and 
a lively curiosity is excited. The pupils ask parents 
and friends, who in turn become interested, and the 
question is discussed in the family circle. Soon the 
answers begin to come in ; clippings from papers and 
books are brought and the question is discussed. In 
this way, th& first few moments are made so interest- 
ing that no one wishes to lose them. Teachers may 
find it advantageous to make personal visits to the 
parents in regard to the matter. If the co-operation 
of the parents can be secured, there will be very little 
tardiness. 

Yet another way to secure punctuality is to read for 
a few moments each morning a few pages in a con- 



SCHOOLUOOM SUGGESTIONS. 107 

tinued story. By the last-named device, two things 
will be gained, —attendance may be secured, and a 
taste for good reading cultivated in the i>upi]. 

After all, the most efficient plan to pi-event or di- 
minish tardiness is to arouse the pride of the scholars 
in making the school successful, and this will prove a 
great factor for good in many other directions. In 
graded schools competition can be aroused between 
different rooms, each trying to have the best record 
in punctuality and attendance. 

Rest Periods. — When your pupUs appear tired 
and dull, throw open the windows and have a breath- 
ing exercise. Good work cannot be done in a school- 
room where the air is impure from insufficient venti- 
lation. Teachers are inclined to overlook the physical 
welfare of their pui:)ils. They should never forget that 
to have a sound mind, one must have a sound body in 
which it may dwell. The seeds of disease are far too 
often implanted in the bodies of delicate pupils by the 
over-heated and impure air of the schoolroom. In 
these exercises gi-eat care should be taken never to in- 
hale or exhale suddenly. Nor should the pupils prac- 
tise holding the breath for any considei'able length of 
time. 

1. Place the hands on the hips ; draw a long breath ; 
expel the air slowly. Eepeat twice. 2. Draw in a 
long breath. Send the hands straight up in the air ; 
bring them back to the shoulders. Expel slowly. Ee- 
peat twice. 3. Draw a long breath. Draw the body 
backward from the waist ; bring it back again. Ex- 
pel slowly. Eepeat twice. 4. Draw a long breath. 
Bend the body forward from the waist ; return to an 



108 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

erect position and expel the breath slowly. Repeat 
twice. 5. Draw a long breath ; bend the body to the 
right ; return to an erect position. Expel the breath 
slowly. Repeat twice. 6. The same, bending the body 
to the left. 7. Draw in a long breath ; stretch out the 
arms horizontally ; return to the shoulders. Expel 
slowly. Repeat twice. 

Let these exercises occur at the middle of a session, 
or whenever there seems to be a need of them. Do 
not let them degenerate into disorder ; if any persist 
in making play of it, let them take their fresh air out- 
side the schoolroom. 

Ventilation. — Have a board fitted to slide between 
vertical cleats fastened to the window-casings, a few 
inches from the sash. Tliis device gives an upward 
inflection to the cold air as it enters, causing it to be- 
come gradually diffused throughout the room, with- 
out being felt as a draught by the pupils. If ventilation 
must be sought by opening the windows, do not open 
those on the windward side, as this would cause a 
di'aught directly upon the pupils, and would not prove 
as beneficial in freeing the room of impure au* as 
though the opposite windows were opened, when the 
air in the room would gently pass out to join the cur- 
rent outside. If possible, the air should be admitted 
to the schooh'oom near the floor and allowed to pass 
out at the ceiling, but the air admitted should be warm, 
or rendered warm before it is breathed. To do this in 
many buildings containing but one room, is a simple 
matter. Let tlie air be admitted through an opening 
directly beneath the stove. This may be brought 
about by having a wooden flue leading from an open- 



SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 109 

ing in the foundation wall to the opening beneath the 
stove, which may be closed at either end by a shding- 
door, when the draught is too strong. The air as it 
enters will thus be warmed. Openings should also be 
made in the ceiling to allow the impure air to pass 
out. 

Many teachers have narrow strips of boards made 
the same length as the width of the window. These 
are placed under the lower sash, when an air-passage 
is formed between the upper and lower sash, and m 
such a way as to avoid a direct draught. 

As a last suggestion, remember that the lassitude 
and lack of interest so often noticed in schoolrooms is 
due, in a great measure, to the impure state of the air. 
The present success of a school and the future health 
of pupils depend in no small degree upon the kind of 
air they breathe in the schoolroom. 

Lighting. — The light in a schoolroom should al- 
ways enter the room at the sides or in the rear: pupils 
should not sit facing a window. If there is such an 
abomination in your room, place a dark curtain over 
it. When it is necessary to use gas or lamps, the same 
care should be used. Never allow the hght to shine 
directly in the faces of the pupils. The walls of a 
schoolroom should not be so white as to reflect a daz- 
zling light into the eyes. If this is the case, they may 
be cheaply tinted drab or fawn color. 

ScFnool Gymnastics.— A few moments spent each 
day in brisk and orderly gymnastic work will be found 
to pay, both in driving away weariness and dulness, 
and also in the development of the growing bodies of 



110 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

the pupils. It is particularly important that these ex- 
ercises be conducted according to some definite plan 
•which experience has found best for accomplishing the 
purposes desired. Much more precision and interest 
will be attained if music can be provided to accompany 
the exercise. If a piano or organ is not practicable, 
a drum beaten in time will be found a good substitute. 
Many of the scholars, through a feeling of awkward- 
ness, will ask to be excused. This trouble may be 
obviated by commencing with exercises for the hands 
and arms, which can be practised while sitting. After 
a little, all will be ready for the standing exei'cises. 
If dumb-beUs cannot be obtained, small bits of wood, 
four inches long and an inch in diameter, should be 
grasped tightly in the hands. If possible use dumb- 
bells, as even their slight weight requires a certain 
bracing of the body which calls into action nearly all 
the muscles. Do not allow any exercises except such 
as are known to be beneficial, for ill-advised action 
of the muscles or overtaxing does more harm than 
good. 

The following exercises will be found practical and 
easy of accomplishment : 

For the Hands, Wrists, and Arms. — 1. Open and 
shut the hands vigorously ten times; then a pause, 
marked by the music, followed by the same exercise 
twice repeated. 

2. Place the hands palms downward on the desk, 
raise them from the wrist only, ten times; pause, 
marked as before, and two repetitions. 

3. Elbows resting on the desk, hands turned on the 
sides. Eaise the hands as high as possible ten times; 
pause, and repeat twice. 



SGHOOLBOOM 8UGGESTI0W8. Ill 

4. Arms held out straiglit before the body, bring the 
hands to the shoulders ten times ; pause, and repeat. 

For the Chest and Back.—l. Let the hands meet 
over the head, both pahns forward ; bring them down 
in the same plane to the side of the body, holding the 
shoulders rigidly back ; repeat ten times. 

2. Raise the arms up over the head, bend the body 
till the hands nearly touch the feet, bring the body 
to an erect position again with the arms raised as be- 
fore, and repeat five times ; pause, and repeat once. 

3. Grasping the dumb-bells, or sticks, raise the hands 
as far as possible above the head, and return to the 
shoulders ten times; keeping the head thrown back, 
so that the eyes are gazing directly at the ceiling. 

For the Loiver Limbs. — 1. Standing erect with the 
hands upon the hips, raise the whole body on tip-toe 
ten times ; pause, and repeat once. 

2. Standing erect with the hands upon the hips, 
lower the body by bending the knees and then imme- 
diately rise to an erect position again ; repeat five times, 
pause, and repeat once. 

3. StaTiding erect with the hands upon the hips, bend 
the body side wise to the right in the form of a bow, 
then to the left in the same manner; repeat ten times, 
pause, and repeat twice. 

The teacher should use his own judgment as to the 
amoimt of these exercises which will be profitable for his 
pupils to take. If the pupils are very young, or not 
accustomed to exercising, a few motions of each kind 
only should be taken at first, gradually increasing the 
amount. It is much better to take cifeiv of each than 
to spend the whole time on one or two motions, as it 
is important that all the muscles of the body be brought 



112 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

into action, to produce a harmonious development. 
Plenty of fresli air sjiould be allowed in the room dur- 
ing this exercise. Have the room cool and the chil- 
dren will not become heated and made liable to receive 
a cold. Insist strongly that all stand erect and keep 
the shoulders back, that the lungs may have a chance 
to expand. 

Information. — Once a week the teacher may take 
a half-hour to question the school upon points of gen- 
eral information. When the questions can be answered 
by any one of the pupils, let the answers be obtained 
in this way; when all are in ignorance of the answer, 
the teacher should give the information, enlarging on 
topics of the most concern. In this way the pupils 
will be interested and will also secure much valuable 
knowledge. Questions will readily occur to the teacher 
—a few only bemg given below : 

1. What is the source of alcohol? How does it de- 
range the action of the bodily functions? (Teacher 
should enlarge upon the destructive effect upon the 
brain, stomach, heart, kidneys, and the ii'ill-poimr of 
the user.) 

2. Does the U. S. receive any income from the Ter- 
ritory of Alaska, and what is the form of government 
there? 

3. What State, or Territory, produces the greatest 
amount of gold next to California? What other States 
produce gold? Hoav is gold mined? 

4. To what extent has the central portion of Africa 
been explored, and by whom? 

5. What is the difference between our own form of 



SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 113 

government and that of other countries, as England, 
G-ermany, etc.? 

6. How old must a man be before ho can be a Sena- 
tor, a Representative, or President of the United States? 

To Give an Idea How to Compare.— To culti- 
vate the habit of close observation, let the teacher take 
two pieces of money (a penny and a dime will answei*), 
aild, holding them up before the class, ask the pupils to 
tell wherein they are alike. They will say that they 
are both round, metals, engraved, coins, etc. Write all 
these answers on one part of the board. Then ask the 
pupils to mention the points wherein they differ. 
They will say that they differ in size, thickness, color, 
in the characters engraved on them; that they are 
made of different metals ; that their edges differ, etc. 
Write these answers upon another part of the board. 
Then ask for a word that wiU express the points in 
which they are similar. They will soon hit upon the 
word "Likenesses," and upon "Differences" for the 
points in which the coins are dissimilar. 

Such a device may be used with great profit in be- 
ginning Botany, and in any other study where com- 
parison is a basis of procedm'e. 

Read ch. iv., part i., sec. vi., Tate's "Philosophy of 
Education." 

Dull Recitations. — It is the most difficult thing in 
the world for the average teacher to see when his class 
is tired, and when he has tired it. Time and time 
again sucli^ thing happens, but still he goes on— still 
he continues to tire his class. Yet all the while he is 
conscious there is a di-ag. But the drag occurs day 



114 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

after day. "How should he avoid it," does one ask? 
Stop, the moment the recitation begins to drag. If 
the time allotted is thirty five minutes and the lesson 
begins to di'ag after twenty-five, stoj) at once, and 
dismiss the class. What would be the result? In the 
first place, the teacher would gain in power and fresh- 
ness for his class, and upon himself the result would 
be that he would make a preparation which would last 
through the time and sustain the interest of his class. 

Alternating Studies. -Do not attempt to hear 
daily recitations in everything, if your school is a large 
one, but alternate the studies of the more advanced 
pupils. 

Quiet Periods. — In some schools this plan would 
have a good effect. The teacher finding there is noise 
and restlessness, stops work, and says, "Now let us 
take ten minutes of hard study. We must have the 
room perfectly quiet. Let me see how many can keep 
steadily and quietly studying for the ten minutes." If 
the effect is not dissipated by the teacher, the influence 
of such a period will be felt in the quiet on-going of 
school. 

Division of Class. — It is sometimes convenient to 
divide a class into two, three, four, or more sections. 
There are several ways in which to accomplish this 
quickly and impartially. 

1. Let the class number as they are seated ; a division 
may then be made of odd and even numbers. 

3. Call off promiscuous numbers and keep account 
of them on paper. 



SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 115 

The device of assigning a number to each pupil may 
be made to furnish a separate example for each mem- 
ber of the class. Suppose, for instance, the class is 
working in notation and numeration, the teacher may 
say, "Put down your own number, prefix to it two 
ciphers and a six, and annex a nine, two ciphers, and 
your own number; point off and be ready to read." 
No. 18 would then read 6,001,890,018. No 11 would 
have an entirely different number— 6,001,190,011— and 
likewise the rest. 

The same device can be used m fractions, compound 
numbers, percentage, etc. 

Plan for Getting Answers from each Pupil 
of a Large Class. — Where classes are large, and it 
is desired that all take part in the recitation, adopt the 
following plan: Give out a certain number of ques- 
tions, and ask all the members of the class to write 
them on slates or paper. Let each one then write the 
answers below the several questions. Call upon some 
one to read the first question and its answer. If cor- 
rect, ask all who have a similar answer to i-aise hands. 
If incorrect, call for correction. Go through the whole 
list of questions in this way. 

A School Diary.— The teacher, having procured a 
suitable blank -book, may allow the school to vote for 
a secretary each week, who will write up each day 
the events of that day. To give the secretary some 
importance, a small badge may be provided. 

Time Given for Questioning.— Have a certain 
time in your recitation work when the pupils can ask 



116 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

questions on the day's lesson, or on any of the work 
gone over, which may stiU be troubling them. 

Original Examples and Illustrations. — Let 
pupils bring in original examples in each subject as they 
pass along. These may be distributed among the 
members of the class for solution, to be reported on 
the following day. 

Repetition.— A gr6at part of the benefit of some 
teachers' work is lost through lack of repetition. This 
occurs most often in teaching small children Ideas 
can only be firmly implanted in their minds by con- 
tinual repetifeon. The same is true, though perhaps 
to a less extent, with the majority of older pupils. To 

secure the best results, review ; and after this 

review. 

Necessity of Reviews.— In order to fix the facts 
acquired firmly in the mind, frequent reviews are in- 
valuable. Sometimes a written reproduction of past 
work should be demanded, and sometimes an oral re- 
production. The teacher may make a brief restate- 
ment of the chief points in the work after the scholars 
have finished. It is also important that each recitation 
shovild begin with a short review of the one preceding 
it. It will occasionally be found well to divide the 
class into two parts, and allow a pupil on one side to 
question any one upon the other side, but on the condi- 
tion that the one putting the question shall be fully 
able to answer the question liimself. It is also of value 
to set apart a time when each one may ask any ques- 



SCHOOLROOM SU0GESTI0N8. 117 

tion that has puzzled him in his work; but indiscrim- 
inater- questionings should not he allowed. 

In reviews, write your questions on blank cards, and 
let the student write his answers on the board, and 
encourage the class to criticise what is wrong. When 
there is a large amount of instruction, both oral and 
written reviews are a necessity. Pujiils should rise 
and read their written reproductions, or recite the 
same orally ; they should follow an orderly plan and a 
logical outline. In order that they may do this, the 
teacher must first have done it. The pupil takes his 
cue from his instructor, hence the teacher's lesson 
should be carefully wrought out. Read sec. xv., ch. 
iv., Tate's "Philosophy of Education." 

Graphic Examinations. — In holding an examina- 
tion of this sort, ask only such questions as can be 
answered by figures on the board. For instance, in 
physiology, a great nimiber of questions on the struc- 
ture of the heart can be answered by a drawing of that 
organ upon the board. Questions in geography can 
be answered by maps, drawn on the boards, showing 
cities, mountains, rivers, capes, etc. In almost aU 
studies, questions can be asked, admitting graphic 
answei'S upon the board. Such nn examination is sure 
to be a thorough test of familiarity with the subject. 

The Value of an Object.— Many teachers will 
keep referring to the size of a brick, and yet never 
think to bring one into the schoolroom. Fetch one 
to school with you, and direct pupils to measure it. 
A bird in the hand will teach a child more about or- 
nithology than a dozen in the bush. 



118 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Error-box. — Have a box at the desk, and ask the 
pupils to write out, and place in this all the errors they 
have noticed in the language which has been used in 
school during the day. Let each paper be signed by 
the one writing it. The box may be opened each night 
before school is dismissed, or at the beginning of school 
the next day, and the papers read by the teacher, who 
should ask for hands to be raised for corrections. 

Quotations. — To develop a taste for literature, take 
a few moments after the morning exercises, in which 
the pupils may repeat quotations from various authors. 

Questioning.— It is of great importance in asking 
questions of pupils that a logical order be followed. 
Each question ought to prepare the way for that which 
follows, and lead to it. Many teachers make a failure 
because their questions ai-e so worded that the pupil 
does not see what is meant by them. Others fall into 
the error of suggesting too much in asking a question. 
How much benefit can come from such an interroga- 
tion as this, "You would regard this as an important 
battle, would you not?" When pupils have become 
accustomed to the tone and manner of their teacher, 
unless he is on his guard, they will infer what the 
answer is from his very tone of voice. 

To show what is meant by a logical order in ques- 
tioning, we subjoin a few questions for giving a class 
an idea of a clause. 

Practical men are usually diligent. 

What kind of men are diligent? 

What word modifies the subject? 



SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 119 

In what other form can this sentence be placed with- 
out changing the sense? 

Men tvho are practical are usually diligent. 

What kind of men are dihgent? 

What word does ivlio are practical modify? 

To what word in the first form is ivho are practical 
equivalent. 

What kind of a modifier is it ? 

In the clause icho are practical, what is the subject? 
To whom does ivlio refer ? To what class of pronouns 
does ii'lio belong? What kind of a clause is this? 
What is its predicate? To whom does practical refer? 
What word in the clause dioes practical modify? 

Read ch. vi., Fitch's " Lectures on Teaching," 

Pupils to Keep a Note-book.— Advise pupils in 
the higher classes to keep a note-book and write in it 
lists of words, commonly misspelled or mispronounced, 
correctly spelled and pronounced, together with the 
new words they meet in their reading, with their cor- 
rect spelling and meaning. The book will thus become 
a record of the pupil's progress. 

Bulletin-board. —Have a bulletin-board in the 
schoolroom or in the hall of the building, on which 
may be posted notices. Newspaper clippings of 
stories, news, or humorous anecdotes may be pasted on 
the board, which will prove a source of interest, quiet 
amusement, and profit to the pupils. A brief sum- 
mary of each day's news could be thus posted and the 
pupUs questioned upon this. 

Reporting Exercise. — A profitable exercise may 
be made by asking the pujDUs to make notes of any- 



120 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

thing of interest which falls under their observation and 
tell it, in their own words, to the class. Make it a vol- 
untary exercise, and allow it to occupy but a few 
moments. Encourage the pupils to carry note-books 
in which they may make notes of things suitable to 
report. In this way the habit of observation will be 
cultivated. 

A Test of Quick Observation.— Try the plan of 
placing an object before the class, and, after it has been 
in view for a moment, remove it from sight, and call 
for an accurate description of it. Begin with simple 
objects and gradually substitute those which are more 
difficult. 

Debating Club.— Where the boys of a school are 
of sufficient age, it will be a great advantage to them 
to have a debating society, conducted according to 
the usual parliamentary I'ules governing such bodies. 
It is a great loss to boys to pass from school to the 
duties of life, and not be able, for example, to make, 
or put, a motion properly. Besides famiharity in the 
manner of conducting such meetings, the boys would 
be learning something useful, and acquiring the habit 
of independent thought— the great object of teaching. 
The teacher should help organize the club, and should 
preside at the first few meetings, till the members be- 
come accustomed to the rules of procedure. Then 
they should elect one of their own number to preside. 
A few topics suitable for discussion by young people 
are given below : 

Resolved, That the right to vote should be extended 
to woman. 



SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 121 

Resolved, That government aid to education defeats 
the end sought. 

Resolved, That the right to vote should be denied 
those who cannot read and wi'ite. 

Schoolroom Decoration. —It is not possible for 
teachers, ordinarily, to go to any great length in the 
matter of schoolroom decoration, but every one can 
make an effort in that direction, and the effort will be 
amply repaid. Every evidence of refinement and taste 
which can be shown in the room will have a refining 
influence on the manners of the pupils. If the room 
is bare, cheerless, and dirty, as too many are, the effect 
is plainly seen, and an opposite effect is likewise plain- 
ly seen if the room is clean, bright, and tastefully ar- 
ranged with pictures, flowers, and a few bright colors 
scattered about. Good pictures can be procured so 
cheaply now that there is but little excuse for bare 
walls. A few cents invested in dye would transform 
the cheerless white curtains into warm, bright colors. 
A little effort would transform the dirty and rusty 
stove into a respectable article of furniture. Teach 
your pupils to manifest the same neatness in the 
schoolroom that they would in their own homes. If 
you can interest the pupils in making the room pleas- 
ant and keeping it clean and orderly, you will have 
gained a gi'eat advantage both in the matter of disci- 
pline, and in the development of a regard for beauty 
on the part of the scholars. 

During a large part of the year plants can be kept 
in the room and nothing makes it more homelike 
or pleasant. Have shelves arranged at some of the 
sunny windows, and ask each pupil to bring a plant. 



122 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Quick-growing vines can be trained about the window 
casings, and for this purpose perhaps nothing is better 
than the sweet-jjotato vine. It is only necessary to 
place a small potato of this variety in a vessel of 
water when it will begin to grow, and under ordinary 
circumstances, will increase an inch a day, A great 
number of these can be arranged about the various 
Avindows. Let the children take turns in caring for 
the plants. 

In all your efforts to beautify the room, avoid every- 
thing which is out of taste. Cheap colored prints 
should be shunned. Buy engravings or photographs 
of pictures that will elevate the taste of the pupils. 

Some teachers who are not able to secure even a 
small amount of funds to expend in decoration, cut 
the large effective wood-engi-avings from Harper'' s 
Wceldy, and other illustrated papers, and paste these 
engravings upon pasteboard box-covers, which are 
thrown aside at every store. Tasteful selection and 
arrangement of such pictures give the room an air of 
refinement, and exert an educative influence upon the 
school. 

Suggestions about Receptions. — At school re- 
ceptions it is usually found necessary to have a stage, 
and this must be of good size, especially if dialogues 
are to be given. Neither teacher nor school officials 
should sit upon the stage. Such an exhibition is out 
of taste. Give special visitors a seat near the stage, 
but reserve the platform for those who are to take 
part. The order of proceeding should not be called 
off by the teacher. Have printed i^rogrammes, if pos- 
sible, and let each performer go out in his turn with ov/j 



SCHOOLROOM SUGGESTIONS. 123 

■waiting to be called. In building a platform care 
should be taken to have it of suflQcient height that 
those in the rear of the room moy have an unob- 
structed view. When dialogaies or plays are to be 
given, a curtain will be found necessary. Have a 
stout cord stretched tightly across the front of the 
stage, and from this let the curtain be hung by small 
rings. It should be divided in the middle— one half 
sliding each way, and let small cords pass from the 
last ring in each curtain, at the centre of the stage, 
to each side of the platform, so that the curtain may 
be drawn together or apart from the sides of the 
stage. 

Closing Exercises. — It is always well to make 
the closing of a term or year a special occasion, in 
which the friends of the school may become acquainted 
with the work done, and an interest created outside 
the pupils and their parents. This closing exercise 
will consist partly of a review or examination on the 
work done ; and, in addition, to give a pleasing variety, 
some literary work should be presented by the pupils. 
This need not be of the same character for all, but 
may vary according to the age and ability of the stu- 
dent. The most advanced may present something 
original, either as a discussion of some subject — one 
speaking in favor and one against it— or as a composi- 
tion or essay on some timely topic. Good dialogues 
will always be well received, as will also tableaux. If 
possible, have music several times during the exercises. 
This wiU be of interest to visitors, even if it is not 
elaborate. Use the songs that have been sung in 
school, during the term. 



124 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

One of the pupils may prepare and read a History of 
the term, givinpj a brief accomat of all that has oc- 
curred, together with the work accomi^lished. It is well 
to have printed programmes, if that is convenient; 
if not, they may be neatly wi-itten by the scholars. 
See that visitors are made welcome and courteously 
shown to seats. 

Let all such exhibitions be rehearsed again and 
again. It is only in this way that a successful enter- 
tainment can be secured. The audience is likely to 
judge your work by the showing which your pupils 
make on such occasions. If any one is likely to fail, 
it is far better to withdraw him till another time, 
when his part can be more thoroughly committed. 



OUTSIDE TEE SGEOOLBOOM. 125 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OUTSIDE THE SCHOOLROOM. 

In Regard to the Parents of Pupils The Noon Recess 

Teach the ConsteUatious The Judgment of Two is 

Better than the Judgment of One Another Suggestion 

for the Noon Intermission A Scrap-box Scrap-hooli. 

The Parents of Pupils. — The reputation of a 
school depends, to a great extent, upon the way in 
which the parents regard it, and their opinion is usu- 
ally formed by the reports which the children carry 
home. It is therefore important that nothing be said 
or done by the teacher which may be misconstrued by 
the pupils. If it be possible, and it ought to be possi- 
ble, let each pupil feel that you are truly interested in 
him. In no other way can you gain such a hold on 
the pupil, or better arouse the parent's interest in the 
school. When you meet a parent, if you can honestly 
do so, do not fail to speak pleasantly of the child. In 
this way you will gain the good- will o£ the parent, and 
arouse the self-respect and ambition of the pupi], since 
he will regard himself as an object of interest to his 
teacher. Do not fail to invite the parents to visit the 
school, and when they come make them feel at home, 
but do not make any change in your usual exercises. 
Your school is very sure to be successful if you can 
arouse the parents' interest in your work. 



126 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

The Noon Recess. — In country schools, where 
the children liv^c at a distance from the school, it is 
necessary for them to carry a lunch and remain dur- 
ing the noon hour. In this hour much that is ill-bred, 
and much that is frequently of a vicious nature, may 
be learned by them, unless great care be taken to have 
the hour filled with orderly, harmless amusement. If 
the teacher also remain during the hour, there is an 
opportunity to set an example of good-breeding in the 
manner of eating lunch, and in other ways. Encourage 
the use of napkins, and a neat appearance and orderly 
manners. After lunch, music, stories, or interesting 
games are in order. If the teacher can engage heartily 
in these, he will gain a firm liold vipon the sympathies 
of his pupils, and will find his discipline easier in school 
hours. It may be objected that the necessary work of 
the school is sufficient tax upon a teacher's strength. 
But will the teacher not come to the afternoon session 
in better trim, having occupied the hour thus, than 
would be possible after enduring the confusion and 
annoyance of the usual noon intermission ? One rule 
should be rigidly regarded ; if any pupil is discovered 
using uuproper language about the schoolroom, he 
should be removed from school at once. The school- 
room must be pure and fresh, morally, — this is of far 
more importance than arithmetic or grammar. 

Teach the Constellations.— The teacher would 
add to the interest of his school, and increase the 
knowledge of his pupils, if on clear evenings he should 
take them out and teach them the different constella- 
tions, telhng them at the same time the legends con- 
i:>ected with each. During the day he could announce 



OUTSIDE THE SCEOOLEOOM. 127 

the constellation that would be seen that evening, and 
place dots on the board to represent the position of 
each star in that constella tion . D ots may be m ade la rge 
to represent the bright stars, and the names of these 
written out. In this connection, be careful that the 
names are correctly spelled, and all the words propei'ly 
pronounced. A mispronunciation taught at this period 
will, perhaps, be carried through life. A lasting benefit 
may be secured by such teaching. Some of these boys 
may become sailors to whom this knowledge will be 
most necessary. The work of others may compel 
them to be out of doors at night— on the road, or in 
the fields, when familiarity with the heavens will be 
an enduring source of pleasure. Another point to be 
noticed is the elevation of character that comes when 
the thoughts are turned up from the dead level of com- 
mon things to that which is mysterious and grand. 
The attempt to grasp the immensity of stellar distances 
can but broaden the mind by the very act. 

Begin in the latter part of October to teach the con- 
stellations. Dot upon the board an outline of the 
Pleiades, and tell in what part of the sky they will be 
visible at a certain hour. Call attention to the bright- 
est star in the constellation, Alcyone. It will be found 
that many a scholar has singled out this little cluster 
long before hearing of constellations, and has caUed it, 
improperly, of course, the Little Dipper. Having the 
Pleiades as a basis, it will be found quite easy to go 
from this to other groups. Right below the Pleiades, 
and covering five or six times as much space, will be 
found, in the shape of a letter V turned on its side, 
the Hyades, with its bright star Aldebaran. Moving 
north from each of these constellations, we find Auriga, 



128 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

its bright star Capella, In the west-northwest may 
be found Lyra, with its bright star Vega, an easy con 
stellation to outline and to find. Eeturning to the 
eastern sky, under tlie Hyades, is to be seen that large 
and beautiful constellation Orion, scattering a star- 
twilight all about it. Under Auriga in the latter part 
of November, at nine o'clock, will be found the con- 
stellation of the Twins, Castor and Pollux forming its 
bright stars. 

In January, the Dipper and its pointers can be 
searched out, and at the same time Polaris, or the pole- 
star. Cassiopeia is on the opposite side of the pole 
from the Great Bear, at nearly the same distance. Tliis 
constellation can be readily recognized from its three 
or four bright stars, disposed in a line broken into 
pieces at riglit angles to each other. 

The teacher should consult a star map, which can be 
found in any text-book upon Astronomy. If he know 
nothing of that subject, he can easily gain the little 
information necessary to direct his pupils in their 
search for the constellations. "We are urging that only 
the marked constellations be tauglit, and we complete 
this topic by naming the rest of these : The Great Dog, 
the Little Dog, Leo, Virgo, Bootes (the Bear-driver), 
Hercules, Job's Cofiin. 

The Judgment of Two is Better than the 
Judgment of One. — Whenever a teacher has an 
unusual case of discii^line, it is best to consult the 
trustees or the parents before taking action. 

Another Suggestion for the Noon Intermis- 
sion. — If the teacher own a microscope, much enter- 



OUTSIDE TEE SCHOOLROOM. 



129 



tainment can be given pupils on days when the weather 
is unfit for them to be out of doors. Various small 
objects viewed under the microscope Avill afford much 
pleasure and matter for conversation. If the teacher 
have not mounted slides, he can find enough all about 
him to exhibit. Parts of insects placed on the shde, 
grains of pollen dust from different flowers, etc. We 
add one suggestion not generally known. Cut off a 
piece of the Deutzia leaf, and also a piece of the calyx 
of the flower, and place them under the microscope. 
Beautiful stars of different shapes wUl be seen — six- 
pointed on the calyx and four-pointed on the leaf. 
There are two varieties of the Deutzia, the dwarf and 
the high, each variety possessing stars of different 
shape. 

A Scrap-box. — A convenient receptacle for the 
preservation of newspaper clippings can be made in 




the following way : Take old envelopes of a uniform 
size— 3i X 5i inches will be found convenient— square 



130 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

the torn end, and provide a long and narrow box (an 
envelope box will do, if it is not convenient to have one 
made hkethe diagram), into which these envelopes wUl 
fit side by side. Cut from pasteboard a number of 
pieces the same size as the envelopes, with which to 
separate them into alphabetical divisions. Into these 
envelopes, in their own properly lettered divisions, can 
be placed folded cuttings which it is desired to pi*e- 
serve. If, for instance, Blaine's " Eulogy on Garfield " 
has been taken from the columns of a newspaper, 
it will be placed in an envelope in division "B," and 
across the upper end of the envelope should be written 
"Blaine's Eulogy on Garfield." The advantage of 
such an arrangement, in the saving of time, is a sugges- 
tion that needs no further word of recommendation. 

Scrap-book.— Another way to preserve clippings, 
which may be preferred by some to the scrap-file, is 
the scrap-book, which may be made an especially 
valuable book for teachers, and at almost no cost. 
Take any large-sized volume such as the Congressional 
Record, and cut out every other leaf, so that when 
the cuttings are pasted in, the book may be of the 
original thickness. In this may be placed poetry, 
stories, bits of travel, natural history — the habits of 
animals, birds, and fishes. Pieces suitable for decla- 
mation and reading can also be placed here. Every 
teacher can readily see the value of such a collection. 
Articles relating to matters of history and biography- 
in fact, everything that Avill be available in the teacher's 
work can be preserved in this way. 



HISTORY. 131 



CHAPTER IX. 

J HISTORY. 

Outline of United States History The Value of Geograpliy 

in Teaching History Plan of Recitation for History 

Class The Study of History by Preparing Written 

Papers Dates Administrations of the Presidents 

Drawing in History Civil Government English 

Sovereigns. 

Outline of United States History. 

[As Used in the Schools of Cambridge, Mass.] 

I. America Before Columbus, 
Its Inhabitants. Its Antiquities. 

II. The principal Discoverers and Explorers of 

America. 

1. Spamsli. ^ Name and describe briefly their most 

2. Enghsh. | . , . ,- • "^ , , 

3. French, f important discoveries and explor- 

4. Dutch. J ations. 

III. The Permanent Settlements in America. 

1. St. Augustine. 9. Connecticut. 

2. Port Royal, N. S. 10. Rhode Island. 

3. Virginia. 11. Delaware. 

4. Quebec. 12. North Carolina. 

5. New York. 13. New Jersey 

6. Massachusetts. 14. South Carolina. 

7. New Hampshire. 15. Pennsylvania. 

8. Maryland. 16. Georgia. 



132 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



State -when, and by whom they were settled, and the 
object of settlement. 

IV. The Colonial Wars. 

1. Wars with the Intlians. 

2. Clayborne's Rebellion. 

3. Bacon's Rebellion. 

4. King William's War. 

5. Queen Anne's War. 

6. King George's War. 



State where carried 
on. 



7. French and Indian Wars. 



C Time, Cause, 

■< The Objective Points, 

( Treaty of Peace. 



8. The American Revolution. 



(1) 



Causes. 



{Navigation Act. 
Writs of Assistance. C Stamp Act. 
Unjust Taxation \ Bill of 1767. 
Boston Massacre. ( Tea Tax. 



(3) Defensive Measures. 



(3) Leading Events. 



' Sons of Liberty. 
Colonial Convention. 
Minute Men. 

First and Second Conti- 
nental Congress. 



1775. 



1776. 



1777. 



( Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord. 
} Battle of Bunker Hill. 
( Siege of Boston. 

r Evacuation of Boston. 
J Declaration of Independence. 
j Campaign in New York. 
[ Trenton. 

{Princeton. 
Campaign in Pennsylvania, 
Burgoyue's Invasion. 
Valley Forge. 



EI8T0BT. 133 



( Aid from France. 
1778, < Evacuation of Philadelphia. 

( The British capture Savannah. 

-.«^n S Naval Exploits. 
* ' \ Attack on Savannah. 

t The British Capture Charleston. 

1780. \ Arnold's Treason. 

( Gates and Camden. 

( Green's Campaign in the Carolinas. 

1781. I Ravages in Virginia. 
( Siege of Yorktown. 

1783 \ '^^^^^y 0^ Peace. 

■ \ Departure of the British. 

(4) Depreciation of the Currency. 

V. The Government. 

1. Of the Colonies. \ EoyI*r*' \ pistingiiish be- 

( Proprietary. ( tween them. 

2. Of the United States. | '^^ g^gSr 

VI. The United States Under the Constitution. 
1. George Washington's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

r Financial Affairs. 
Relations with Foreign Pow- 
ers. 

(2) Leading Events. ^ UnS StatS'^'*''^^ ""* ^^^ 
First Cabinet. 
Discovery of coal. 

, Gotten gin invented. 



134 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



2. John Adams's AdTninistration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term, 

/o^ T r.r.A- 17'^+^ 5 Death of Washington. 

(2) Leading Events. \ ^^^^^ ^^ Jefferson^ Election. 

3. TJiomas Jeffersoti's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

( Purchase of Louisiana. 

(2) Leading Events. < Fulton's Steamboat. 

( Aggression of Great Britain. 

4. James Madison''s Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

f 1. Cause. 

I 2. Where carried on. 

(2) Lead- J War of 1812. -> 3. Imi:)ortant events hy- 
ing Events. 1 land and sea. 

[ 4. Treaty of peace. 
^ War with Algiers. 

5. James Monroe's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

' Construction of the Erie Canal. 
First Steamboat Crosses the Atlantic. 

(2) Lead- J Acquisition of Florida, 
ing Events. 1 Missouri Compromise. 

Monroe Doctrine. 
^ Mode of John Qumcy Adams's Election. 

6. John Quincy Adamses Administraiion. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

( Death of John Adams and 

(2) Leading Events. < Thomas Jefferson. 

i First Railroad Built. 

7. Andreiv Jackson'' s Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

(2) Leading Event. —Nullification. 



BISTORT. 135 

8, Martin Van Bureii's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

(2) Leading Events. — None of special importance. 

9-10. Administrations of William Henry Harrison 
and John Tyler. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Terms. 
, r Death of Harrison. 

I Rise of Mormonism. 

(2) Leading Events. -I Annexation of Texas. 

Beginning of Electric Teleg- 
[ raphy. 

11. James K. Polk's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

1. Cause. 

2. Important Events. 



(2) Lead- 
ing 
Events. 



War with 
Mexico. 



Taylor's Campaign; Operations in 
New Mexico and California; 
Scott's Campaign. 

3. Treaty of Peace. 
Discovery of Gold in California. 
Wilmot Proviso. 

12-13. Administratio7i of Zacliary Taylor and Millard 
Filmore. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Terms, 

^9^ T oQriiiio- \ Death of Taylor. 

^™r;l<? \ Discussion of the Slavery Question. 
Events, j Coj,^promise of 1850. 

14. Franklin Pierce's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term, 

f Gadsden's Purchase. 

(2) Lead- Opening of Japan. 

wi^fe Kansas-Nebraska ( Dorder Warfare. 
Events. | -g^ < Squatter Sovereign- 



136 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



15. James Buchanan'' s Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated, Length of Term. 

Dred Scott Decision. 

The First Atlantic Cable Laid. 
(2\ Teadine- Personal Liberty Laws. 
^^ ^il,.?c? \ Jotin Brown's Eaid. 
invents. Election of Lincoln. 

Seven Southern States Secede. 

A Southern Confederacy Organized. 

16. Abraham Lincohi's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

(2) Leading Events. 
A. The EebeUion. 

a. Cause. Slavery. 
&, Principal Events. 

(a) Fall of Sumter. 

(&) First Blood Shed. 

(c) Operations for the Eetention of the South- 

ern States. 
' Of Missouri. 
Of West Virginia. 

C Bragg's Expedition. 
Of Kentucky, < luka and Corinth. 
( Murfreesboro'. 

(d) Campaigns against Eichmond and its De- 
fending Army. 

fBuUEun. 

Peninsular Campaign. 

Pope's Campaign. 

Antietam Campaign. 

Fredericksburg Campaign. 

Chancellorsville Campaign. 

Gettysburg Campaign. 

Wilderness Canipaign. 

Shenandoah Campaign. 

Siege of Petersburg. 
. Fall of Eichmond and Surrender of Lee. 



HISTORY. 



137 



(e) Rise of the Navy, and its Share in the War. 

{Blockade of Southern Ports. 
Opening of the Mississippi River. 
Capture of Coast Cities and Forts. 
Encounters with the Rebel Navy. 
(/) Opening of the Mississippi River. 
I The Part Performed by the Navy, 
( The Part Performed by the Army. 
(g) Movements for the Mastery in the Heart 
of the Confederacy. 
Chickamauga. 
Chattanooga. 
Sherman's Campaign from Chattanooga 

to Savannah and Northward. 
Thomas's Nashville Campaign. 

c. Emancipation Proclamation. 

d. Effect on the Finances. 

e. Cost in Men and Money. 

/. Our Relations with Foreign Powers. 
B. Assassination of the President. 



17. Andrew Johnsori's Administration. 
(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 
Disbanding of the Army. 
Thirteenth Amendment. 
Fourteenth Amendment. 
Admission of Seceded States, 
j Impeachment of the President. 
I The Atlantic Cable. 
[ Purchase of Alaska. 



(2) Leading 
Events. 



18. Ulysses S. Gh^anVs Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

i Pacific Raih'oad Opened. 

(2) Leading Events. < Fifteenth Amendment. 

( Treaty of Washington. 



138 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

19. Rutherford B. Hayes's Administration. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Term. 

(2) Leading Events. — None of special importance. 

20-21. Administration of James A. Garfield and Ches- 
ter A. Arthur. 

(1) When Inaugurated. Length of Terms. 

(2) Leading Event. — Assassination of the President. 

VII. Civil Progress. 

1. Prominent Statesmen. 

2. Eminent Authors and their Principal Works. 

3. Progress of Education. 

4. Noted Inventions. 

The Value of Geography in Teaching His- 
tory. — A noted teacher and writer has said that "his- 
tory without geography is incomplete and unsatisfac- 
tory." Let the teacher keep this constantly in mind; 
for nothing so effectually aids a scholar to hold tena- 
ciously the account of a battle or a campaign, as 
tracing it out carefvilly upon the map when studying. 
Suppose a pupil, in his study of the American Revolu- 
tion, is required to trace the movements of the army 
under Washington from his taking command at Boston 
to the surrender of the British at Yorktown. naming 
the battles and encampments, together with the im- 
portant dates ; it will be found that the pupil's reali- 
zation of that portion of the Revolution with which the 
movements of this army are connected, is then much 
more vivid than is possible without this connected use 
of the map. 

A plan of a battle-ground drawn upon the board, and 



HI8T0ET. 139 

the movements of the opposing troops dotted in lines 
as the pupil recounts the events, is another form of 
using geography in teaching history. 

Trace General Grant from his being placed in com- 
mand, before the battle at Belmont, through all his 
movements till Lee suri-enders to him near Richmond. 

Trace Sherman in his march to the Sea, and then 
northward to co-operate with Grant, pointing out the 
place of each engagement and giving a very brief ac- 
count of it. Such topics as the above cover more than 
one year ; but such a plan used in the study of history 
will give a clear, connected, and durable impression 
of the main movements of the war. 

Plan of Recitation for History Class.— Have 
the class read the lesson assigned for the following 
day, first as a reading exercise. On the next day di- 
rect the class to bring their slates with them to recita- 
tion. Have them write their names at the top, and 
then let the teacher give out a number of questions 
orally, requiring the class to write the answei'S upon 
their slates. The questions given by the teacher 
should not be those of the text-book, as the pupU would 
soon recognize this and learn the answers to them. 
Exchange slates as soon as all pu^^ils have ^vritten 
their answers. Then, givmg out the first question, call 
upon some pupil to read the answer upon the slate 
which he has, and by a raising of hands ascertain 
how many have answered the question correctly. An- 
swers will differ in wording and in length ; but if the 
general facts are correct, give the pupil full credit for 
his answer. 



140 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Studying History by Preparing Written Pa- 
pers. — In no way can the study of history be made to 
yield so excellent and wide results as by assigning 
topics to a class, requiring them to read up thoroughly, 
and write a careful and condensed paper upon the 
topic. By this plan the pupil is not getting his knowl- 
edge ready-made, but is making it for himself. He 
consults maps, books of reference, different text-books 
for the facts, and then must dwell upon them and 
have them clearly in mind before he is able to write a 
clear account. Frequently he will have to draw a map 
on his paper for illustration. 

Edward Abbott's little " Paragraph History of the 
U. S. " would form a good outline in American history 
for the teacher to work upon. 

One caution should be added to this plan, and that is, 
the necessity of thorough oral reviews. 

Dates. — In teaching history, use but few dates, but 
let these few be focal dates. Train pupils to locate an 
occurrence between these by calculation. If careful 
consideration is given, they will come approximately 
near the exact time. Some dates can be impressed 
easily upon the mind by some peculiarity in them. 
Take, for instance, 1789, the year the present constitu- 
tion of the United States was adopted. By asking 
pupils to notice what is peculiar about the last three 
figui'es of this date, they will see the regular order of 
the numerals 7, 8, 9, and by this association hold it in 
memory. 

Nearly every boy has read these Knes in Dr. 
Holmes's " One-hoss Shay:" 



HISTORY. 141 

" Seventeen hundred and fifty-five — 
Georgius Secundus was then alive — 
Snufi'y old drone from tlie German hive. 
That was the year when Lisbon town 
Saw the earth open and gulp her down; 
And Braddock's army was done so brown, 
And left without a scalp to its crown." 

In these lines are three important facts, two being 
upon American history, viz. : that it was in 1755 that 
Braddock's army was defeated (the first year of the 
French and Indian war), and that George the Second 
was then king of England. 

Washington died in December, 1799, This may be 
of but little value as a date, but whatever its value a 
statement such as this would fasten it in the mind: 
Washington died on the last hour of the day, the last 
day of the week, the last month of the year, and the 
last year of the century. 

Rome was founded 753 B.C. By remembering the 
reverse order of the odd numbers, 7, 5, 3, this date 
may be fixed in the mind. 

In speaking of the Norman Conquest, the impression 
made by saying "The Normans landed in 1066 "—ten 
and two sixes— is more forceful than to state merely 
the naked date. 

The dates of the following events may be remem- 
bered by contrast : The Puritans landed in 1620 ; sla- 
very was introduced into Virginia in 1619. 

It must be remembered, however, that a device of 
this kind has its limitations and is likely to be carried 
too far. 



142 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Administrations of the Presidents.— Many 

examiners require the dates of the beginning and close 
of each President's administration. To acquire this 
easily, let scliolars be able to name the Presidents in 
order and tell how many terms each served. Then 
taking the date 1789 (on which we have made a for- 
mer suggestion) and adding four or eight years, as the 
case may be, the whole matter becomes much easier. 

Drawing in History.— Fresh interest can always 
be given to the study of history by introducing draw- 
ing. No matter how good the engraving in the book, 
a picture of the Monitor and the Merrimac drawn by 
a pupil on the board upon a large scale invests the 
story of that naval battle Avith an additional interest. 

We suggest a few of the many things th5,t may be 
represented upon the board by those pupils who can 
draw: The flags used by the Americans in the Revo- 
lution; the Confederate flag; Continental money; Ful- 
ton's first steamboat ; the firing upon the Star of the 
West as she attempted to carry reinforcements and 
supplies to Major Anderson at Fort Sumter. 

Civil Government.— Such an exercise as the fol- 
lowing may be given to the whole school, since it con- 
tains information that every well-informed person 
should possess. The officers and legislative bodies of 
the U. S. government, of the State, county, town, and 
school district, exercising similar powers, are placed 
side by side : 



EISTOBT. 



143 



U.S. 

Congress. 
President. 
Sec. State. 

Sec.Treas. 
Auditors. 



State. 

Legislatui-e. 
Governor. 
Sec. State. 



County. 

Board of Superv's. 

Sheriff. 

Co. Clerk. 



Treasurer. Co. Treas. Supervisor. 

ComptroU'r. B'd Supervisors. Auditors. 



Town. 

Town Meeting. 
Constable. 
Town Clerk. 



Sch. Dist. 

Dist. Meetinj?. 
Trust, or Agt. 
Dist. Clerk. 

Collector. 
Trustee. 



English Sovereigns.— Those who wish to fix in 
memory the succession of the sovereigns of England 
can easily do so by committing the following lines, 
which, though old, are useful : 

" First William the Norman, 

Then William his son; 
Henry, Stephen, and Henry, 

Then Richard and John. 
Next Henry the Third, 

Edwards one, two, and three; 
And again, after Richard, 

Three Henrys we see. 
Two Edwards, third Richard, 

If rightly I guess; 
Two Henrys, sixth Edward, 

Queen Mary, Queen Bess. 
Then Jamie, the Scotsman, 

Then Charles whom they slew. 
Yet received after Cromwell 

Another Charles too. 
Next James the Second 

Ascended the throne; 
Then good William and Mary 

Together came on. 
Till Anne, Georges four, 

And fourth William all past, 
God sent us Victoria — 

May she long be the last I" 



144 SCHOOL DEVICES. 



CHAPTER X. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

Practical Physiology How to Prepare a Drop of Blood 

for Observation under the Microscope An Outline of 

Foods To Show the Process of Osmosis in Liquids 

To Show Osmosis in Gases To Illustrate Reflex Action 

To Illustrate Congestion To Show the Circulation 

Action of the Heart Structure of the Lungs 

Carbonic Acid Structure of the Heart To Diagram 

the Blind Spot in the Eye Dissection of a Rabbit or 

a Cat. 

Practical Physiology.— There is no study which 
can be made of such practical value to a class as 
physiology; and to teach it, omitting the practical 
side, is to fail in the moral responsibility which one 
assumes in teaching such a subject. If you do not 
know the proper thing to do in restoring a person 
who has been under water several moments, find 
out, and see that your class understand what is neces- 
sary to be done in such a case. If you do not know 
what to do when an artery or large vein is severed, 
get some intelligent physician to inform you, and 
then make it clear to the class. 

The study should include sufficient anatomy to 
make clear the position of the large blood-vessels and 
the place where the arteries come to the surface. A 



PHYSIOLOGY. 145 

teacher of physiology ought to be familiar with the 
relative digestibility of all the common foods, and 
make his pupils see how health is lost by non-attention 
to this subject, and by irregular and rapid eating. 
Do not treat the subject of ventilation as something 
foreign to e very-day hfe; make your pupils enthusi- 
astic over fresh air. Bring sharply home to each pupil 
the ways in which health is lost, as also the ways by 
which it can be made vigorous. Teaching that shows 
the structure of the stomach and lungs, and the way 
in winch they act, is of but small value if it does not 
show how to take care of these organs. 

Read chapter "The True Foundation of Science- 
Teaching" in Payne's "Lectures on Education." 

How to Prepare a Drop of Blood for Obser- 
vation under the Microscope.— A specimen of 
blood can be prepared for the microscope by using a 
slide and cover glass (a thin round glass). Take the 
latter in the fingers and breathe quickly on one side of 
it, which will thus become slightly moist. Place the 
cover glass upon the slide, the moist side downward. 
Put a fresh drop of blood on the sKde at the edge of the 
cover glass, and a bit of blotting-paper at the other 
side of the same. The moisture on the underside of 
the glass will be drawn out into the blotting-paper, and 
the blood will be forced in to take its place without in- 
jury to the blood-corpuscles. The specimen is then 
ready for use. 

An Outline of Foods.— Place the following out- 
line upon the board, co be used as the basis for lessons 
on foods: 



146 



SCHOOL DEVICES 



Foods. - 



r Albumen, 
' Containing j Casein, 



Organic. - 



nitrogen, j Gluten, 

[Fibrin, etc. 

Not. (gfi^ 
contamingJ^i^^', 

^ nitrogen. [I^^^^'etc. 



f Lime ; 

I Salts, chlorides, pbos- 
Inorganic pbates, etc. ; 
Iron, 
Water. 



To Show the Process of Osmosis in Liquids. 

— Over one end of a glass tube tie securely a piece of 
parchment paper, and put in the tube a tbick solution 
of sugar and water. Insert the tube in a dish of clear 
water, so that the surface of the sugar solution and 
that of the clear water shall be on a level. After 
standing awhile, it will be found that the liquid in the 
tiibe has risen above the level of the surrounding water, 
showing that some of the water has passed through 
the paper into the denser Hquid. 

To Show Osmosis in Gases.— Over the top of 
a glass containing nothing but air tie securely a thin 
rubber membrane. Place this under a bell glass con- 
taining hydrogen. The hydrogen will pass through 
the rubber into the denser medium, and increase the 
bulk of air to such an extent as to burst the rubber. 

To Illustrate Reflex Action. — Pith a frog in the 
following way : After etherizing, to obviate unnecessary 



PHTSIOLOOY. 147 

pain to the animal, find with the finger a depression 
in the spinal column just below the base of the brain. 
Insert the point of a knife here, and sever the spinal 
cord. Through the opening thus made run a small 
awl or wire up into the brain, and destroy that organ 
by twisting the awl or wire about within the brain 
cavity. Although the bi-ain is thus destroyed, the 
other functions of the body still continue. Lay the 
frog on the ventral surface and straighten out the legs. 
Let one side of the animal be tickled with a feather or 
pinched with a pair of pincers. The leg on that side 
will be drawn up and swept over the side to remove 
the cause of the irritation. Try the same on the other 
side. The other leg will go through the same motions. 
Pinch various parts of the body, and observe the efforts 
of the frog to remove the irritating object. Suspend 
the frog and pull down the legs. Bring a dish con- 
taining dilute sulphuric acid up under the frog, so that 
one of the legs will just touch it. The foot will sud- 
denly be withdrawn. Touch the acid to the other leg. 
That will likewise be withdrawn. Moisten a bit of 
blotting-paper with acetic acid, and place it on the 
flank of the frog. The leg on that side will be drawn 
up, and swept over the flank to dislodge the paper. 

To Illustrate Congestion. — Having placed a frog 
that has been pithed so that the web of the foot can 
be seen under the microscope, apply to the spot to be 
observed a drop of creosote. Observe the action of 
the blood. It will be seen to become stagnated, and 
blocked up in its flow, while the white corpuscles will 
become more numerous. Here, then, can be seen, on a 
small scale, the whole process of congestion. If the 



148 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

irritation from the creosote be but slight, the blood will 
finally force its way through the blood-vessels, and the 
circulation be resumed. 

To Show the Motion of the Cilia.— Lay open 
the oesophagus of a frog that has been recently pithed, 
and on the inner surface lay a small bit of cork. It 
will be seen to move slowly down toward the stomach, 
carried along by the cilia. 

To Show the Circulation.— Tlie circulation can 
be observed in the tongue of the frog, as in the web of 
the foot and in the lungs of the same animal. 

The circulation of the blood can likewise be seen in 
the tail of the tadpole. If a specimen can be obtained 
at just the right age, nearly the whole circulatory 
system of the animal can be watched through its trans- 
parent skin. The heart, with the blood entering and 
leaving it, can be seen, as also its passage through the 
arteries. For the success of the observation, it is well 
to starve the young tadpole for a day or two previous 
to examining it. As the animal gi"ows older, its skin 
loses its quality of transparency. The tadpole may be 
rendered passive by placing it in water and heating to 
about 112 degrees. 

Action of the Heart.— A good experiment to offer 
to the class in physiology is to open the thoracic cavity 
of a frog, previously rendered insensible, when will be 
seen the action of the heart and the lungs collapsed. 
If the heart be carefully removed and placed on a 
board in a warm place, it wiU beat for some time. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 149 

Structure of the Lungs. — To show the structure 
of the hmgs, insert a small tube in the trachea of a 
dead frog and inflate the lungs. Tie up the trachea to 
prevent the escape of the air, and hang in a warm 
place to dry. On cutting it open, after being thor- 
oughly dried, the air-cells can be studied to good 
advantage. 

Carbonic Acid. — The show the presence o£ car- 
bonic acid in expired air, take a small glass tube or 
the stem of a clay pipe, and through it breathe slowly 
into a glass of lime-water. A white precipitate will 
be formed, which is carbonate of lime, formed by the 
carbon of the gas and the lime in the water. 

Structure of the Heart. — The heart's action can 
be studied to advantage by the use of the frog, as 
shown in another place. But to show the stx-ucture of 
this organ, the heart of a larger animal is necessary. 
Get a butcher to save you one from a sheep, and while 
it is still fresh cut it open and exliibit it to the class. 
The working of the valves can be readily shown, and, 
in general, the students will get a much better idea of 
the subject from such an inspection than from a mul- 
titude of diagrams. Have the students draw carefully 
upon paper what they see. 

To Diagram the Blind Spot in the Eye.— 
Draw several horizontal, parallel lines about a quai'ter 
oE an inch apart. Make a cross at one end of the line. 
Close the left eye, and look steadily at the cross with 
the right eye. Now run the point of the pencil along 



150 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

the upper line. At a certain distance along the line, 
the point will become invisible, and a little further on 
will again appear. Make a dot at the points of disap- 
loearance and reappearance. Do this on a number of 
the lines. It will be found that the dots have enclosed 
a space which, if the lines are near together, and the 
experiment be carefully performed, will give a very 
accurate outline of the blind spot in the eye. It will 
be found to differ in shape in different members of the 
class. It should be remembered that the eye is to be 
kept at a uniform distance from the page throughout 
the experiment. 

Dissection of a Rabbit or Cat.— The teacher 
who desires to do thoroughly good work in teaching 
physiology should not fail to make a dissection before 
the class of a rabbit or a cat. In no other way can 
such a vivid representation of the organs of the body 
and their functions be brought before the pupil's eyes. 
You may describe accurately the action of the heart, 
but your class will never fully realize what it means 
until a heart has been seen in action. There need be 
no hesitancy because of the specious arguments against 
vivisection: an animal under the influence of ether 
is dead to pain. When a dissection is to be made, let 
the animal, either a rabbit or a cat, be placed in a clof'.e 
box, in which has been placed a sponge, or cloth, 
moderately wet with ether. It is convenient to have 
a glass window in the top of the box, so that one may 
know at once when the anaesthetic has taken efllect. 
Do not keep the box so tightly closed as to smother 
the animal. When thoroughly insensible, remove the 
animal from the box. Have some one keep the sponge 



PHYSIOLOGY. 151 

or cloth near the animal's nose continually. Be par- 
ticular about this. Stretch the animal upon its back 
on a board, and draw all its feet out and fasten them to 
the sides of the board with strings. Part the fur, and 
make an incision through the skin upon the median 
line from the throat across the thoracic and abdominal 
cavities, but do not cut through into the thoracic cavity 
in the first of the dissection, as that would cause the 
lungs to collapse, when the fimctions of life would 
shortly end. Make an incision into the abdominal 
cavity below the diaphragm, and observe the position 
of the stomach, liver, pancreas, kidneys, bladder, large 
and small intestines. If there is food in the animal's 
stomach, notice the congested appearance of that organ. 
Observe carefTdly the peristaltic action of the intes- 
tines—the instant of rest followed by the pecidiar 
writhing motion vv^hich marks the function. 

With a thin scalpel or small knife, carefully detach 
a small bit of the thin, almost transparent membrane 
which invests the intestines. This is the peritonaeum 
which slings the intestines to the walls of the abdom- 
inal cavity. Notice the action of the diaphragm as it 
expands and contracts with every breath. Carefully 
raise the intestines from their position, and find the 
large blood-vessels that foUow the course of the spinal 
column down from the heart. Distinguish between 
the veins and the arteries. If an artery is cut in your 
work, pick it up at once with pincers and tie it. Notice 
the white appearance of the cut end. Cut through into 
the cavity of the thorax and notice the collapsed lungs 
— their color, form, and general consistency. Notice 
their covering. Raise the lungs cai'efully, and notice 
the working of the heart. Try to distinguish the two 



152 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

impulses of a single beat. Observe carefully the auri- 
cles and the apex (the lower point). Notice that it is 
the striking of this point against the wall of the thorax 
which gives the impi'ession of a beat when the hand is 
held over the heart. Distinguish the pericardium, or 
sac in which the heart is contained. Trace the aorta 
and the various veins and arteries connected with the 
heart, naming the most important. Cut open the 
covering of the throat, laying bare the trachea. Ob- 
sei've the hard rings nearly encircling it, and behind 
this the oesophagus. Follow the trachea down to the 
bronchi. Trace the large veins of the throat. When 
all these points have been carefully studied, remove 
the heart by cutting away its attachments, and place 
it in water slightly warm. It will beat for some time. 
If placed in cold water, it will stop beating, but on 
being returned to the warm fluid it will resume its 
beats if it still retains its vitality; that is, if the experi- 
ment has been carefully made, and the heart has not 
been too long removed from the body. 

In cutting into the thoracic cavity, the sternum will 
have to be removed. This may be done by severing 
the attachment of the ril)S with stout shears. 

To show the action of the lungs ia breathing, remove 
the lungs and trachea intact. Place them in a large 
empty bottle, with the trachea projecting through a 
hole in the cork. Render the bottle air tight by means 
of sealing-wax placed about the trachea and the edges 
of the cork. Place a small bellows, or rubber bulb, 
over the open end of the trachea. In this way the lungs 
can be inflated, when the air in the bottle will become 
compressed. Remove the pressure of the bulb, or bel- 



PHYsioLoar. 153 

lows, and the air iu the bottle will expand and drive out 
the air from the lungs, which will then be in a state of 
collapse. Repeat this regularly fifteen times per min- 
ute, and a very successful exhibition of the action of 
the Imigs in breathing will be afforded. 



154 SCHOOL DEVICES. 



CHAPTER XI. 

SEAT-WOMK 

What is Gained by Seat-work Copying Reading Lessons 

Thinking of Words Building up Words Sugges- 
tions for Seat-work Dissected Pictures and Maps 

Number Illustrated Examples Geography Ana- 
grams Blackboard for Lowest Grade Derivatives 

from Primitive Words. 

What is Gained by Seat- work.— Would you 
reduce discipline to a minimum oC effort, keep your 
scholars busy, taking great care that there be variety 
in their work. Have you yet, do you think, fully real- 
ized how much there is in this? 

Copying Reading Lessons.— Direct pupils to 
copy carefully upon their slates the reading lesson just 
finished, or the lesson to be read to-morrow. See that 
there is no hurried work. Inspect all work and ap- 
prove every effort that shows the pupil has tried. 

In this copying the pupil is aiding himself in spelling, 
by impressing the forms of the words upon his mind; 
he is getting practice in writing ; he is indirectly learn- 
ing to capitalize and punctuate; and, besides this, what 
he does is of direct value to him in reading. 



SEA T- WORK. 155 

Thinking of Words. — To afford variety in seat- 
work, direct pupils to make on their slates a list of all 
words they can think of that have three letters in 
them ; on another day, a list of words having four let- 
ters only. The number may be increased, as the pu- 
pils advance in knowledge. 

Building Up Words. — For pupils in the primary 
class write upon the blackboard parts of words as fol- 
lows : 



at 


an 


all 


ad 


eat 


ell 


and 


at 


an 


all 


ad 


eat 


ell 


and 


at 


an 


all 


ad 


eat 


ell 


and 


at 


an 


all 


ad 


eat 


ell 


and 


at 


an 


all 


ad 


eat 


ell 




at 


an 


all 


ad 


eat 


ell 





Direct the class to form words by putting one or 
more letters before each part. Other parts of words 
wiU readily occur to the teacher. 

Suggestions for Seat-work. — Write short sen- 
tences on the blackboard, and requu'e them to be 
copied. 

Have the Roman letters and numbers of the pages 
in the reading-book copied. 

Shoe-pegs cost ten cents a quart. They can be easily 
colored by soaking them in any of the aniline dyes. 
Distribute these to the smallest pupils and let them form 
designs, and copy the designs upon their slates. Pu- 
pils may also form little arithmetical examples upon 
their desks. 

Upon pieces of card-board copy examples to be 



156 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

worked, tables to be filled out, words and sentences 
to be copied. 

Write a neat little letter upon the blackboard, and 
let pupils copy it on their slates. 

Take card -board and cut it up into half -inch squares. 
Print letters on these squares, and let pupils form 
words with these letters. As soon as a word is formed, 
it may be copied on the slate. 

Place a number of red,blue, and yellow inch squares 
of bristol-board in envelopes, and, distributing these, 
have children form designs, each following his own 
fancy. 

Bring in leaves of different shapes, distribute these, 
and let children place them on their slates and draw 
an outline by tracing around them. 

Give pupils geometrical forms cut from card-board, 
and let them trace the outlines of these upon their 
slates. 

Dissected Pictures and Maps.— Another way 
in which to interest and keep small children busy is 
to take pictures from the illustrated papers, being 
careful always that the pictures are meritorious, and 
paste them upon pasteboard ; then cut the whole into 
squares, triangles, etc. Give these parts to the pupil 
and let him properly re-arrange them. By using maps 
in the same way, considerable knowledge of geography 
will be imparted. 

Number.— Let the pupil arrange and add such 
numbers as will give successively as right-hand figures 
1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Thus: - 



8EAT-W0BK. 157 

9-r21 Give las 1 + 11 Give 2 as 2 + 1] Give 3 as 

8 + 3 I right- 9 + 3! right- 9 + 4 f right- 

7+4 f hand 8+4 ( hand 8 + 5 f hand 

6 + 5 J figure. 7 + 5 J figiu-e. 7 + 6 J figure. 



Put tables upon the board like the following, and 
let pupils supply answers at their seats : 



4+ =9 


iof 4 


5x6 = 


iofl2 


14-9 = 


iof 8 


20 H- =5 


f of 12 


36-9 = 


Iof 9 


46^ =7 


f of 16 


7x8 = 


|of 6 



Dii'ect pupils to write on slates what is necessary to 
make a f uU table. 

$10 + $6 = X = 8 

Sc. + 4c. = + = 7 

6 qts. + 9 qts. = - = 11 

2 qts. + 3 pts. = -H = a 

2 yds. + 2 ft. = X = 18 

Iqt. +Hgal. = +=13 

5 in. + li ft. = - = 17 

-4- = 6 

Illustrated Examples. — Set pupils to making 
original examples and illustrating them, or give them 
the examples to illustrate; as, add i, i, ^, |, *. 



^ c^C^i^ C^ 



Ans. 1:\ 



158 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 







If a daisy has 21 leaves 
and 9 fall off, how many are 
left? 

21 
9 

12 left. Ans. 12. 







3^^ = how 
many halves ? ' 




If a forget-me-not has 6 petals, 
how many petals will 5 forget- 
me-nots have? 

6 

5 

30 petals. 



Ans. 3^ = |. 



In a house show- 
ing eight windows, 
w^ith twelve panes 
in each window, 
how many panes 
jijL.v^ are seen? 




■^ ^ z^-- 



96 panes. 



SEAT- WORK. 



159 



What will a stone wall cost 18 ft. long and 9 ft. 
high, at $2.00 a 
sq. yd.? 

18 ft. := 6 yds. 
9 ft. = 3 yds. 



;2.00 

18 



18 yds. 



6.00 Ans. 




■4':f 






J^^i^ 



Geography.— Rule the board for the nimiber of 
columns desired, and write at the head the subject ; as, 
rivers, islands, etc. At the head of each column 
write the headings suggested below. One or two ex- 
amples may be written out, to give the pupil an idea of 
what is desired; tben he can fill the columns to any 
length. Below are some suggestions for rivers, 
islands, gulfs, bays, etc. 

KIVERS. 



NAME. 


SOURCE. 


DIRECTION. 


OUTLET. 




Moosehead Lake. 
Itasca Lake 


South 




Mississippi 










ISLANDS. 


NAME. 


SITUATION. 


SURROUNDED BY. 


BELONGS TO. 


St. Helena 


West of Africa. . . 


Atlantic Ocean . . 


England. 



160 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 

ISTHMUSES. 



NAME. 


WHAT CONNECT. 


WATERS SEPARATED. 


Panama 


North America and South 
America. 






Ocean. 



GULFS, BAYS, AND SEAS. 



NAME. 


WHERE. 


TRIBUTARY TO. 


BY. 


Baffin Bay 

Red Sea 

Gulf of Mexico.. 


N. of N. A 

N. E of Africa.. 
S.of U. S 


Atlantic Ocean.. 

Indian Ocean 

Atlantic Ocean. . 


Davis Straits. 
Bab-el-Mandeb. 
Florida Straits. 



MOUNTAINS. 



NAME. 


WHERE SITUATED. 


HIGHEST PEAK. 


White 




Mt. Washington. 







LAKES. 



NAME. 


WHERE SITUATED. 


OUTLET. 


Erie 


Between U. S. and Canada. 
Minnesota 


Niagara River. 
Mississippi River. 







CAPES, PROMONTORIES, AND PENINSULAS. 



NAME. 


WHERE. 


PROJECTS INTO. 




West of Mexico 


Pacific Ocean. 









8EATW0EK. 161 

Anagrams.— A device for seat-work that will be 
found both interesting and profitable is the making of 
anagrams. Select a word of moderate length made 
up about equally of vowels and consonants, and ask 
the pupils to form as many new words as possible, 
using only a part, or all, of the letters found in the 
original word ; forming in the first place words that 
begin with the first letter of this word, then those be- 
ginning with the second letter. 

Blackboard for Lowest Grade.^If you have a 
primary department in your school, you should have a 
blackboard that will accommodate ten or twelve pupils, 
giving about eighteen inches of running space to each 
pupil. Have the board low enough for them to reach ; 
and if this is not possible, have a platform built so that 
the little ones can reach the board, which we here sup- 
pose is above wainscoting a yard high. Divide the 
board into spaces by painted lines, put an eraser and 
crayon at each place, and send your little ones in 
groups to this board. Don't fret over them. Let them 
alone. K a pupil is disorderly, deprive him of the 
privilege of going to the board. When your little ones 
are at the board, go on Avith your other work, and let 
them mark away as they want to. All sorts of fan- 
tastic drawings will be made. But the rest it gives 
the little ones! the rest it gives the teacher! and a 
thousand times more than all is the play it gives to 
the little folks' imaginations. 

Derivatives from Primitive Words.— A valua- 
ble drill in spelling can be made by putting exercises 
like the following upon the board and directing pu- 
13ils to form the words at their seats; 
11 



JC)2 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



Make these words end in ing : 



come 


break 


loin 


fail 


see 


hft 


give 


forget 


fall 


upset 


fly 


dig 


get 


hit 


knit 


shut 


spin 


spoil 


swim 


win 


work 


write 


wring 


quit 


Make these end in ed : 






awake 


listen 


dance 


knot 


start 


point 


stay- 


drop 


hop 


wrap 


lag 


slam 


Add ly to these words : 






real 


true 


whole 


slow 


even 


hard 


wide 


able 


hasty 


general 


single 


separate 


ill 


equal 


angry 


pretty 


Add en to these words : 






short 


sweet 


fat 


ripe 


rot 


fall 


sharp 


flat 


awake 


bid 


eat 


forsake 


rid 


shake 


take 


length 



DRAWING. 163 

CHAPTEE XII. 

DBA WING. 

Drawing from Models A Harmful Practice Drawing 

from Nature A Concession SLading Diagrams 

Designing Diagrams for Designing. 

Drawing from Models.— We give herewith ilhis- 
trations of a number of models, with which any 
teacher may provide himself, as many of them he 
can make, while the rest can be obtained from any 
mechanic of ordinary abihty at a trifling cost. Begin 
Avith the simplest forms, as the cubes and the other 
rectangular sohds, placing the model in such a posi- 
tion that the lights and shadows will be brought out 
sharply. Teach the pupU to regard the form of the 
object as made up of these hghts and shadows, rather 
than direct his attention to an imaginary hne bound- 
ing the figure. Do not have the outline of these 
models drawn, but let the pupil bring out their fonn 
wholly by shading. There are no lines in natiu'e, — 
the sharp edge of a cube, on which the light falls 
strongly, being only the abrupt termination of a 
shadow. More satisfactory results can be obtained 
from teaching drawing in this way than from the 
ordinary custom of drawing an outline. Do not ex- 
pect too much at first; perhaps the pupil has not 
been accustomed to look at an object in this way, but 
he wUl soon learn that the only things that give form 
to any object are the lights and shadows, after which 



164 SCHOOL DEVICES 

he will be prepared to make advancement, — and such 
advancement as really advances. 

After the model has been copied from one point of 
view, change it to other positions in successive lessons. 
We have numbered the models, and combinations of 
models, to show the order in which they should be 
given to a class. We have suggested in the illustra- 
tions a few of the combinations which can be used 
when the pupil has acquired facility in drawing simple ' 
forms; but the combinations which any teacher can 
form for himself are almost endless. Care should be 
taken, however, in combining the simple solids, that 
difficulties be presented gradually to the pupil. Make 
at each lesson the combinations a little more difficult 
to draw. 

A Harmful Practice.— Do not allow your pupils 
to copy pictures, as those who gain their experience 
from this kind of work are usually at a loss to know 
what to do when they come to copy directly from 
nature. 

Drawing from Nature.— When the pupils have 
gained facility in copying, in various positions and com- 
binations, the models here represented, select for them 
simple objects directly from nature, as a jagged rock, 
a knotted piece of wood, a branch of a tree, a simple 
flower, or fruit of different kinds. 

A Concession. — While we regard the plan of 
drawing without outlines as the one that will yield the 
most satisfactory results, yet, if this plan seems imprac- 
ticable to any teacher by reason of not having learned 
to use the pencil in that way himself, let outlines be 



DRAWING. 



165 



used ; but encourage the pupil to depend upon them as 
little as possible. 

Shading. — In the illustrations which are given, but 
little attempt has been made at shading, as that could 
be represented only by elaborate engraving. To bring 
out the full values of the lights and shadows when 
copying, let a piece of drab-colored cloth drawn tightly 
over a wooden frame be placed behind the model. 




166 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 






DRAWING. 



167 





u 

13. 





168 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



15. 



16. 



17. 



18. 





DBA WING. 



169 




i-^o 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 






DBAWim. 



171 






172 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 






DE AWING. 



173 





Designing. — Excellent work in designing can be 
done by the following plan: Cut from pasteboard a 
number of squares, circles, equilateral triangles, hex- 
agons, and even octagons. The squares should be 
about two inches on a side, and the circles have the 
same length for their diameter. Show pupils that by 
placing the pasteboard figures upon tea-paper, and 
marking around them with lead-pencil, a block is 
formed, which gives them a geometrical basis for a 
design. Let the pupils fill in the figures as their in- 
vention suggests. 

In nearly every toy-shop a little box of French 
crayons of different colors can be had for five cents. 
With these let pupils color their designs. Color de- 
lights a child's eye, and his interest in designing will 



174 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

be greatly enhanced by the use of these crayons. To 
prevent the color from blurring, dissolve a little white 
shellac in alcohol, and blow it over the design with an 
atomizer. The colors are thus firmly fixed. To incite 
interest, pin up the best designs in the schoolroom 
where they may be seen by all the school. 



BEAWING. 



175 



The diagrams given below illustrate and suggest the 
geometrical bases for designs : 




176 SCHOOL DEVICES. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



PENMANSHIP AND APPARA- 
TUS. 

Order in which Letters Should be Taught Suggestions 

Criticism Primary Writing Charts Adapted to One's 

Need An Ink-well Filler A Wash-bottle for Slates 

A Substitute for Compasses Selecting a Thermom- 
eter A Cabinet of Productions Tracing-stencil 

Slating The Hectograph Colored Crayons. 

Order in which Letters Should be Taught. 
— In teaching penmanship the following order in which 
the capitals should be taught is one founded, upon wide 

experience: C^ C=^ cJ&, S^ C^ J2^ 
^, S3Z ^ S^ S^, ^ d, J, ^ 

m.. (f,m^,a^€M^ 

'.y%P/ '^. In this way all the letters that are simi- 
larly formed will be taught at once. The following 
is the order for small letters : ^ ^^^ ^^ «> ^^ -^^^ 

€'^ <:?, O-y t?, dy ^^ -Z^ ^, i/y ^ ^ ^ ^■' ^^ J^^ ^^ 

^y /^/ yp f- After the letters have all been formed, 



PENMANSHIP AND A'pPABATUS. 177 

the teacher should lose no time in bviilding words and 
sentences. In the latter the capitals can be taught, 
though work with these is much slower than with 
small letters. Of course the small letters should he 
taught first, and such words as man, etc., should be 
written as soon as the single letters forming the words 
have been learned. 

Suggestions. — In order to secure good results in 
penmanship, the boards should be ruled with six lines, 
as well as the slates, and the letters formed in pi-oper 
proportions. The slates should be furnished by the 
school. Thorough inspection and approval of the 
work by the teacher are necessary. The children should 
be incited to take the utmost pains with the work. 
Let it be understood that no one can wiite who will 
not do this. Very soon they will come to have a pride 
in their work. 

This plan should be used for the first two years. 



In the third year the slates and boards should be 
ruled, but with the second and fifth lines omitted. 
Thorough inspection and approval of all work should 
be practised throughout the year. It is specially im 
13 



178 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

portant that the pupil do not form two styles of 
writing. In doing this his progress is gi-eatly hin- 
dered, and much of his previous drill is rendered use- 
less. In the second year, practice-paper and lead- 
pencils may be used ; in the third year, pen and ink. 
For ruhng a blackboard with the six lines used in 
writing, have the lines painted on the board, or use a 
frame made of six slats where it is necessary to rule 
in crayon. A similar frame, on a smaller scale, can 
be used for ruling slates. Place this on the slate, and 
draw lines with the pomt of a file or an awl. 

As a matter of convenience and economy, add a 
little water from time to time to the ink-wells, as the 
water in the ink evaporates. If this is not done, the 
ink will become too thick. 

Criticism. — In teaching writing, as in many other 
branches, criticism is invaluable. Occasionally place 
a word or letter on the board, and ask questions about 
it. Or take the work of a number of pupils and ask 
the class to criticise. In this way their attention will 
be brought sharply to any defects that may exist. 

Teach pupils to criticise their own work in writing 
also, and when they discover a fault to work until the 
fault is overcome. The teacher must pass among his 
pupQs, continually assisting them in this work of 
criticism, as their judgments will often be found in- 
correct. The formation by the learner of the habit of 
criticism is of the highest value in acquiring a fluent 
and even handwriting. Constant practice is, of course, 
necessary ; but to make this the most effective, there 
should be continual comparison of the incorrect with 
the correct form. 



PENMANSHIP AND APPARATUS. 179 

Primary Writing. — It is of the utmost iiBportance 
that the teacher be a good writer before he attempts 
to teach the subject. If you are not proficient in this 
matter, persevering practice will make you so. The 
pupils should work from copies placed upon the board 
by the teacher, and not from charts, as there is neces- 
sarily a certain stiffness about these. Do not make 
the time of practice too long, as the pupils will thus 
become wearied and so lose interest. A few moments 
twice a day will produce better results than the same 
length of time occupied at one sitting. 

Charts Adapted to One's Need.— Any teacher 
at all apt at drawing or copying may make for him- 
self charts to aid in liis work. Stout manilla-paper 
may be used, and, if necessary, colored crayons. It is 
a fact recognized by all teachers that no text-book is 
perfectly adapted to one's work. The teacher, there- 
fore, who is progressive seeks to supplement the text- 
book. Charts made by himself will stand in good 
stead for a part of this supplemental work. Take, for 
instance, the subject of arithmetic: examples, prob- 
lems, diagrams for teaching mensuration, are some of 
the things that may be put upon charts. Then, in his- 
tory, plans of battles drawn upon a larger scale, make 
movements and positions more prominent. In physi- 
ology, in physics, in botany, in astronomy, in book- 
keeping, there are often found better diagrams in 
other text-books than there are in the text-books 
adopted; these, as well as the excellent diagrams in 
books not accessible to the class, can be drawn upon 
manilla-paper in the way we have suggested above. 

It involves too much work, some may object. Yet 



180 



SCHOOL DEVICES. 



can it not be said justly that such an outfit ought 
rightfully to be expected of the teacher? Take the case 
of a carpenter. What is his outfit? A chest of tools, 
by no means an inexpensive equipment, and, in ad- 
dition, fifteen or twenty dollars a year is required to 
make up the loss from wear and tear. Is anything 
similar to this required of the average teacher? Has 
he any right, therefore, to complain of the work in- 
volved in securing for himself an equal equipment? 

An Ink-well Filler.— A simple and unequalled ink- 




well filler is shown in the accompanying figure. A 
stopper is fitted to an ordinary quart ink-bottle, and 
throigh this are passed two pieces of glass tubing, easily 
bent in the manner shown in the figure, by heating 



PENMANSHIP AND APPABATUS. 181 

them in the flame of an alcohol lamp. To the piece of 
tubing reaching nearly to the bottom of the bottle is 
attached a piece of quarter-inch rubber tubing, which 
can be had at any dinig-store. On blowing into the 
short tube the ink will be forced out through the rub- 
ber tube, and by pinching the rubber tubing near the 
end the flow of ink can be stopped at will. If one is 
careful in pinching the end, not a particle of ink need 
be dropped, and on this account the filler does its work 
in a cleanly way. It is only necessary to blow into the 
short tube but once to start the flow, as the long tube 
acts as a siphon. To stop the flow of ink, lift the 
rubber tubing up so that the ink in it will flow back 
into the bottle. 

A Wash-bottle for Slates.— A wash-bottle may 
be made by inserting a piece of sponge into the neck 
of a small bottle as a stopper, leaving part of the 
sponge without the bottle, which has previously been 
filled with water. 

A Substitute for Compasses.— Take a piece of 
pasteboard or thick paper and make a hole in one end, 
and m the other end a number of holes at varymg dis- 
tances. A pin at one end and the point of a lead-pen- 
cil inserted in one of the holes at the other end com- 
pletes the substitute. 

Selecting a Thermometer. — A thermometer 
should be in every schoolroom, and the temperature 
kept as near 68° as possible. On windy days, when the 
cold is searching, the temperature should be 70°. 

In selecting a thermometer, pick out a half-dozen 



182 SCHOOL BEVICM. 

which vary but little from one another. Find the 
average temperature of the six, and purchase the one 
differing the least from this average. You will then 
be likely to secure an instrument that will indicate ap- 
proximately correct temperature. It is nearly impos- 
sible to get a perfectly accurate instrument at a low 
price. 

A Cabinet of Productions.— For use in geogra- 
phy classes collect and arrange in a case, vegetable and 
mineral products, as cotton, flax, vegetable ivory ^ dif- 
ferent woods, coffee berries, indigo, rice in the huU, 
mace, cocliineal, vanilla, cinchona-bark, saltpetre, 
caoutchouc, gypsum, hemp, iron ore, copper ore, lead 
ore, graphite, etc. When studying a locality noted 
for any of these productions, have them before the 
class. 

Tracing-stencil.— A stencil that will furnish a 
large number of copies of objects, words, etc., in out- 
line dots, for pupils to draw, can be made by tracing 
the pattern on paper, then with an unthreaded sewing- 
machine follow the lines. Place this upon the draw- 
ing-paper and rub powdered crayon over the holes 
thus formed ; an outline copy in dotted lines will be 
found underneath, wliich the pupil can trace with 
pencil. This same plan can be used in numberless 
ways that will readily occur to the teacher. 

Slating.— Take fine rotten-stone, lamp-black, alco- 
hol, and shellac. If this is not practicable, take a 
pound of glue and dissolve it in five quarts of water, 
add enough lamp-black to make a good body, together 
with a small quantity of alcohol. 



PENMANSHIP AND APPARATUS. 183 

The Hectograph.— Few teachers recognize the 
service which a hectograph may be to them in their 
work. Examination questions, test problems, etc., 
suggest the frequent need of such a help. 

Any one, with but little trouble, can make one for 
himself, which will last for a long tune, and prove a 
great saving of time and labor. The usual manner of 
making is to take two parts of glue and one of glycer- 
ine. The glue should be dissolved in water. While the 
glue is stni hot add the glycerine, and boil until it is of 
the proper consistency. 

Another plan is to take of glue four parts, glycerine 
two parts, barium sulphate, finely powdered, one part 
(one part of kaoline may be used instead), water fif- 
teen parts. A rectangular tin pan, half an inch deep, 
will hold the mixture. Aniline ink should be used. 

Colored Crayons. — These can be made from the 
white school crayon by boiling in any of the aniline 
dyes, dissolved in hot water. The crayons should be 
kept from the sunlight, as they fade in it. 



184 SCHOOL DEVICES. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

BIBLE READINGS. 

September — July. 

Bible Readings.— It comes very near the truth to 
say that the great body of teachers who are called 
upon to read some selection of Scripture to their 
schools each morning have no collection of passages 
marked out, hut pick up their readings from morning 
to morniuA in a hurried and desultory way. Observa- 
tion testifies that in hundreds of cases blunders are 
made and chapters unsuitable for school use are read. 

The reading of a chapter in this haphazard way of 
selecting can be nothing other than indifferent. And 
herein is an opportunity lost ; for there is great influ- 
ence and majesty in the Scriptures when read weU 
and impressively. 

The passages here arranged for each day and week 
of the school-year have been carefully selected. Ex- 
cept in a few instances, where the thought of a chap- 
ter would be mutilated by giving a part only, the 
readings are short, as readings from the Bible should 
be in the schoolroom. The words difficult of pro- 
nunciation have been noted, and are correctly marked 
r;-. Iji- the selection in which they occur. 



BIBLE READINGS. 185 

SEPTEMBER. 

first tateek. 

Monday. 
The Gospel of St. John, Ch. I. 1st to 19th verse. 
The Divinity of Christ. 

Tuesday. 
St. John, Ch. I. 19th to 35th verse. 
John's Testimony of Christ. 

Bethabara = Beth'ab'a-ra. 

Wednesday. 
St. John, Ch, I. 35th verse to end. 
Andrew and Peter called. 

Bethsaida = Beth'sa'i-da. 

Thursday. 
St. John, Ch. II. 1st to 18th verse. 
The Marriage in Cana. 

FRroAY. 
St. John, Ch. II. 18th verse to end, and Ch. III. 25th 
verse to end. 

John testifieth of Christ. 

second week. 

Monday. 
St. John, Ch. IV. 1st to 27th verse. 

The Samaritan Woman at the Well. 



186 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Tuesday. 
St. John, Ch. IV. 27th to 43d verse. 
Christ's Zeal for God's Glory. 

Wednesday. 

St. John, Ch. IV. 43d verse to end, and to 10th verse 
of Ch. 5. 

Christ's Healing. 

Thursday. 
St. John, Ch. V. 10th to 39th verse. 

Christ declares Himself to the Jews. 

Friday. 
St. John, Ch. V. 39th verse to end, and to 16th verse 
of Ch. VI. 

Five Thousand fed with Five Loaves and Two 
Fishes. 

third -week. 

Monday. 
St. John, Ch. VI. 16th to 41st verse. 

Christ reproves His Carnal Followers. 

Tuesday. 
St. John, Ch. VI. 41st to 66th verse. 
The Bread of Life. 

Wednesday. 
St. John, Ch. VII. 1st to 19th verse. 
Christ teaches in the Temple. 



BIBLE READINGS. 187 

Thursday. 
St. John, Ch. VIII. 12th to 31st verse. 
Christ the Light of the World. 

Friday. 
St. John, Ch. VIII. 42d verse to end. 
Reproving the Unbelieving Jews. 

rOUBTH ■WEEK. 

Monday. 

St. John, Ch. IX. 1st to 26th verse. 
A Blind Man's Sight i-estored. 

Tuesday. 
St. John, Ch. X. 1st to 19th verse. 
The Good Shepherd. 

Wednesday. 

St. John, Ch. X. 19th verse to end. 
Christ's Unity with the Father 

Thursday. 
St. John, Ch. XII. 1st to 9 th verse, and 23d to 37th verse. 
Anointing Jesus' Feet, and the Father testifieth 
of Christ. 

Spikenard = Spik'nard. 

Friday. 
St. John, Ch. XII. 37th verse to end. 
Unbelief of the Jews. 

Esaias = E-za'yas. 



188 SCHOOL DEVICEB. 

OCTOBER. 

FiBST "w:ekk. 

Monday. 

St. John, Ch. XIII. 1st to 18th verse. 
Christ teaches Humility. 

Tuesday. 

St. John, Ch. XIII. 18th to 36th verse. 
Christ foretells His Betrayal. 

Wednesday. 

St. John, Ch. XIV. 1st to 15th verse. 
Promise of the Comforter. 

Thursday, 

St. John, Ch. XIV. 15th verse to end. 
Promise of the Comforter. 

Friday. 

St. John, Ch. XV. 18th verse to the 8th verse of 
Ch. XVI. 

Persecution of Disciples foretold. 

second \^^eek. 

Monday. 

St. John, Ch. XVII. entire. 

Christ prays lor His Disciples. 



BIBLE READINGS. 189 

Tuesday. 
St. John, Ch. XVni. 1st to 25th verse. 
Judas Betrays Christ. 

Malchus = Mal'kus. 
Caiphas = Ca'ya-fas. 

Wednesday. 
St. John, Ch. XVIII. 28th verse to end. 
Jesus accused before Pilate. 

Thursday. 
St. John, Ch. XIX. 1st to 25th verse. 
Crucifixion of Christ. 

Gabbatha = Gablba-tha. 
Golgotha = Gol'go-tha. 

Friday. 
St. John, Ch. XIX. 25th verse to end. 
Burial of Christ. 

Cleophas = Cle'o-phas. 
Magdelene = Mag'da-le'ne. 
Aramathea = Ar-a-ma-the'a. 

thibd "week. 
Monday. 
St. John, Ch. XX. 1st to 19th verse. 

Mary Magdalene comes to the Sepulchre. 

Tuesday. 

St. John, Ch. XX. 19th verse to end. 
Christ appears to His Disciples, 



190 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Wednesday. 

St. John, Ch. XXI. 1st to 15th verse. 
Miraculous Draught of Fishes. 

Thuksday. 

St. J®kn, Ch. XXI. 15th verse to end. 
Christ's Charge to Peter. 

Friday. 

Acts, Ch. IX. 1st to 10th verse. 
Saul's Conversion. 



foubth week. 

Monday, 

Acts, Ch. IX. 10th to 23d verse. 
Paul preaches at Damascus. 

Tuesday. 

Acts, Ch. IX. 23d to 32d verse. 

The Jews lie in Wait for Paul. 

Wednesday. 

Acts, Ch. XII. 1st to 20th verse. 
An Angel liberates Peter. 

Thursday. 

Acts, Ch. XITI. 43d verse to end. 

Paul and Barnabas persecuted. 



BIBLE READINGS. 191 

Friday. 
Acts, Ch. XVI. 9th to 35th verse. 

Paiil converteth Lydia. Paul and Silas im- 
prisoned. 

NOVEMBER. 

first "week. 
Monday. 
Acts, Ch. XVI. 25th verse to end, 

Paul and Silas released from Prison. 

Tuesday. 
Acts, Ch. XVII. 1st to 16th verse. 

Paul preached at Thessalonica and Berea. 

Wednesday. 
Acts, Ch. XVII. 16th to 34th verse. 
Paul's Discourse on Mars Hill. 

Thursday. 

Acts, Ch. XIX. 21st verse to end. 
The Uproar at Ephesus. 

Friday. 
Acts, Ch. XX. 16th verse to end. 

Paul's Charge to the Elders of Ephesus. 

second -week. 

Monday. 
Acts, Ch. XXI. 15th to 37th verse. 

Paul's Apprehension in the Temple. 



192 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Tuesday. 

Acts, Ch. XXI. 37tli to 22d in XXII. 
Paul's Address to the Jews. 

Wednesday. 

Acts, Ch. XXII. 23d to 12th in XXIII. 
Paul pleads his Cause. 

Thursday. 

Acts, Ch. XXIII. 12th verse to end. 
Paul sent to Fehx. 

Lysias = Lish'i-as. 
Antipatris = An-tip'a-tns. 
Cilicia = Si-lish'i-a. 

Friday. 

Acts, Ch. XXIV. entire. 

Paul's Defence before Felix. 

Porcius = P6r'shi-us. 

thikd ■week. 

Monday. 

Acts, Ch. XXV. 1st to 13th verse. 
Paul appeals unto Caesar. 

Tuesday. 

Acts, Ch. XXV. 13th verse to end. 
Festus declares Paul Innocent. 
Bernice = Ber-nfce. 



BIBLE EEABINQ8. 193 

Wednesday. 
Acts, Ch, XXVI. entire. 
Paul before Agrippa. 

Thursday. 
Acts, Ch. XXVII. 1st to 27tli verse. 
Paul's Voyage. 

Aristarchus = Ar'is-tar'kus. i 

Thessalonica = Thes'sa lo-ni'ca. 
Pamphylia = Pam phyl'i a. 
Lycia = Lish'i-a. 

Cnidus = Ni'dus. 

Lasea = La-se'a. 

Friday. 
Acts, Ch. XXVII. 27th verse to end. 
Paul's Shipwreck, 

poukth "week. 
Monday. 
Acts, Ch. XXVEII. 1st to 17th verse. 
Paul arrives at Eome. 

Melita = Mel'i ta. 
Rhegium = Rhe'gi-um (re'-). 
Puteoli = Pu-te o-ll. 
Appii = Ap'pi-i. 

Tuesday. 
Acts, Ch. XXVIII. 17th verse to end. 

Paul commends his Calling to the Romans. 

Esaias = E-za'yas. 
13 



194 8GE00L DEVTGE8. 

Wednesday. 

1 Corintliians, Ch. II. entire. 

Christ the only Foundation. 

Thursday. 
1 Corinthians, Ch. XIII. entire. 
Excellence of Charity. 

Friday, 
1 Corinthians, Ch. XV. 1st to 24th verse. 
Of Christ's Eesurrection. 

fifth week. 
Monday. 
Ephesians, Ch, VI. 1st to 19th verse. 
Christ's Armor, 

Tuesday. 
Revelation, Ch. IV. entire. 

The Throne seen by John, 

Wednesday. 
Revelation, Ch. V. entire. 
The Sealed Book. 

Thursday. 
Revelation, Ch. VI. entire. 

The Opening of the Seals. 

Friday. 
Revelation, Ch. VII. 1st to 4th verse, and 9th to end. 
Number of the Sealed, 



BIBLE READINGS. 195 



DECEMBER. 

first \v"eek. 
Monday. 
Eevelation, Ch. VIII. entire. 
Seventh Seal opened. 

Tuesday. 
Revelation, Ch. XX. entire. 
The Last Judgment. 

Wednesday. 
Revelation, Ch. XXII. 1st to 15th verse. 
The State of the Redeemed. 

Thursday. 

Psalms, LXXII. 1st to 20th verse. 
The Kingdom of Messiah. 

Friday. 
Psalms, XV. and XVI. 

Resurrection of the Messiah. 

second week. 
Monday. 
Isaiah, Ch. XXV. entire. 

Blessings of the Gospel. 

Tuesday. 
Isaiah, Ch. XL. 13th verse to end. 
Omnipotence of God, 



196 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Wednesday. 

Isaiah, Ch. XLI. 1st to 15th verse. 

God's Providence toward His Church. 



Thursday. 

Isaiah, ch. XLIII. 14th verse to end. 
The Destruction of Babylon. 

Friday. 

Isaiah, Ch. LI. 4th to 17th verse. 

The Church to trust in Christ. 



third -week. 

Monday. 

Isaiah, Ch. LII. entire. 

Prophecy of Christ. 

Tuesday. 

Isaiah, Ch. LIII. entire. 

Triumph of the Redeemer. 

Wednesday. 

Isaiah, Ch. LIV. 11th verse to end. 

Gracious Promise to the Church. 

Thursday. 

Isaiah, Ch. LV. entire. 

Exhortation to Faith and Repentance. 



BIBLE BEADINGS. 197 

Friday. 
Isaiah, Ch. LXI. entire. 
Office of Christ. 

fourth "week. 
Monday. 
Isaiah, Ch. LXIII. 1st to 15th verse and 17th verse 
to end. 

Christ shows His Power to save. 

Tuesday. 
St. Luke, Ch. III. 1st to 19th verse. 
John's Testimony of Christ. 

Pontius = P6n'shi-us. 
Iturea = It'u-re'a. 

Trachonitis = Trak'o-ni'tis. 
Lysanias = Ly-sa'ni as. 
Abilene = Ab'i-le'ne. • 
Caiaphas = Ca'ya-fas. 

Wednesday. 
St. Luke, Ch. 11. 8th to 21st verse. 

Good Tidings brought to the Shepherds. 

Thursday. 
St. Matthew, Ch, II. entire. 

The Wise Men worship Christ. 

Friday. 
St. Matthew, Ch. III. entire. 

Preaching of John the Baptist. 



198 SCHOOL DEVIGEB. 

JANUARY. 

FIKST -VSTEEK. 

Monday, 

St. Matthew, Cli. IV. 1st to 18th verse. 
Christ is tempted. 

Tuesday. 
St. Matthew, Ch. IV. 18th verse to 13th of Ch. V. 
Chi-ist begins His Ministry. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. V. 13th to 27th verse. 
Part of Sermon on the Mount. 

Thursday. 
St. Matthew, Ch. V. 33d verse to end. 
Charity enjoined. 

Friday. 
St. Matthew, Ch. VI. 1st to 19th verse. 
Hypocrisy denounced. 

SECOND T?^rEEK. 

Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. VI. 19th verse to end. 
Contentment enjoined. 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. VII. 1st to 15th verse. 
Faithful Prayer enjoined. 



BIBLE READINGS. 199 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. VII. 15th verse to end. 
Caution against False Teachers. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. VIII. 1st to 18th verse. 
Christ heals many that are Sick. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. VIII. 18th verse to end. 
Christ stills a Tempest. 

Gergesenes = Ger'ge-senes. 

THIRD -WEEK. 

Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. IX. 1st to 18th verse. 
Christ cm-es the Palsy, 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. IX. 18th verso to end. 
The Euler's Daughter raised. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. X. 1st to 16th verse. 
The Apostles sent forth. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. X. 16th verse to end. 
Christ instructs His Apostles. 



200 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XI. 1st to 16th verse. 
John's Message to Christ. 



foubth "week. 

Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XI. 16th verse to end. 
Chorazin and Bethsaida denounced. 
Chorazin = Ko-ra'zin. 
Bethsaida = Beth'sa'i-da. 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XII. 1st to 14th verse. 
Christ Lord of the Sabbath. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XII. 14th to 38th verse. 
Christ vindicates His Ministry. 

Beelzebub — Be-el'ze-bub. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XII. 46th verse to 10th verse ol Ch. 
XIII. 

Parable of the Sower. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XIII. 10th to 24th verse. 
Explanation of the Parable. 



BIBLE READINGS. 20J 

I FEBRUARY. 

first ■week. 

Monday 

St. Matthew, Ch. XIII. 24tli to 36th verse. 

Parables representing the Kingdom of Heaven. 

Tuesday. 

St. M atthew, Ch. XIII. 36th to 47th verse. 

Parables representing the Kingdom of Heaven. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XIII. 47th verse to end. 
The Gahleans despise Christ. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XIV. 1st to 22d verse. 
John the Baptist beheaded. 

' Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XIV. 22d verse to end. 
Christ walks upon the Sea. 

second week. 
Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XV. 21st verse to end. 
Christ heals Great Multitudes. 



202 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XVI. 1st to 13th verse. 
The Pharisees require a Sign. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XVI. 13th verse to end. 
Chi-ist foretells His Death. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XVII. 1st to 14th verse. 
The Transfiguration of Christ. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XVII. 14th verse to end. 
The Tribute Money. 

thibd "week. 
Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XVIII. 1st to 21st verse. 
Himiihty taught. 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XVIII. 21st verse to end. 
The Unforgiving Servant. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XIX. 13th verse to end. 
How to obtain Everlastinc: Life. 



BIBLE READINGS. 203 



Thursday. 



St. Matthew, Ch. XX. 1st to 17th verse. 
Laborers in the Vineyard. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XX. 17th verse to end. 
The Disciples taught to be Lowly. 

pochth ■week. 

Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXI. 12th to 28th verse. 

Buyers and Sellers driven out of the Temple. 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXI. 33d verse to end. 
The Wicked Husbandmen. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXII. 1st to 23d verse. 
Parable of the Marriage Feast. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXII. 34th verse to 13th verse of 
Ch. XXIII. 

Hypocrisy denounced. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXIII. 13th to 27th verse. 
The Pharisees denounced. 



204 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

MARCH. 

pikst ^^teek. 
Monday, 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXIII. 27th verse to end. 
Pharisees denounced. 

Barachias = Bar'a-chi'as. 

Tuesday, 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXIV. 1st to 15th verse, and 23d to 
32d. 

Destruction of the Temple foretold. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXIV. 32d verse to end. 
The Sign of Christ's Coming. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXV. 1st to 14th verse. 
Parable of the Ten Virgins. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXV. 14th to 31st verse. 
Parable of the Talents. 

second 'wteek. 

Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXV. 31st verse to end. 
Of the Last Judgment. 



BIBLE BEADING8. 205 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXVI. 1st to 20tn verse. 
The Eulers conspire against Christ. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXVI. 20th to 36th verse. 
The Passover. 

Thursday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXVI. $6th to 57th verse. 
Judas betrays Christ. 

Friday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXVI. 57th verse to end. 
Christ accused before Caiaphas. 
Caiaphas = Ca'ya-fas. 

thibd "week. 

Monday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXVII. 1st to 27th verse. 
Christ dehvered bound to Pilate. 
Pontius = Pon'shi-us. 

Tuesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXVII. 27th to 45th verse. 
Christ crucified. 

Cyrene = Cy-re'ne. 
Golgotha = Gol'go-tha. 



206 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Wednesday. 

St. Matthew, Ch. XXVII. 45th verse to end. 
The Burial of Christ. 

Sabachthani = Sa'bak-tha'nl. 
Magdalene = Mag'da-le'ne. 

Thursday. 
St. Matthew, Ch. XXVIII. entire. 
The Resurrection. 

Friday. 
Jeremiah, Ch. XVII. 9th verse to end. 
The Sabbath to be hallowed. 

fourth "vsteek. 

Monday. 
Genesis, Ch. I. 1st to 20th verse. 
The Creation. 

Tuesday. 
Genesis, Ch. I. 20th verse to end. 
The Creation continued. 

Wednesday. 

Genesis, Ch. II. 1st to 18th verse. 

The First Sabbath and the Garden of Eden. 

Pison = Pf son. 
Havilah- = Hav'i-lah. 
Bdellium = Del'yum. 
Onyx = O'nyx. 
Hiddekel = Hid'de-kel. 



BIBLE BEADING8. 207 



Thursday. 



Genesis, Ch. VI. 5th verse to end. 
The Cause of the Flood. 

Friday. 

Genesis, Ch. VII. 11th verse to end. 
. The Flood. 

fifth week. 
Monday. 

Genesis. Ch. VIII. 1st to 15th verse. 
The Waters assuage. 

Tuesday. 

Genesis, Ch. XXXVII. 5th to 23d verse. 
Joseph's Two Dreams. 

Wednesday. 

Genesis, Ch. XXXVII. 23d verse to end. 
Joseph sold as a Slave, 

Thursday. 

Deuteronomy, Ch. XXXIV. entire. 

Moses views the Promised Land. 

FRroAY. 

Joshua, Ch. I. 1st to 12th verse. 
Joshua succeeds Moses. 



208 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

APRIL. 

piBST week:. 

Monday. 
Psalms I. and II. 

Happiness of the Godly. The Kingdom of Christ. 

Tuesday. 
Psalm V. 

David's Prayer for Guidance. 

Wednesday. 
Psalm VIII. 

God's Love to Man. 

Thursday. 
Psalm XVIII. 1st to 22d verse. 

Thanksgiving for Blessings. 

Friday. 
Psalm XIX. 

Excellency of God's Laws. 

second week. 

Monday. 

Psalms XXIII. and XXIV. 

The Sovereignty of God. 

Tuesday. 
Psalm XXV. 

Prayer for Help in AJSiction. 



BIBLE BEABINQ8. 209 

Wednesday. 
Psalm XXVII. 

David's Faith in GocVs Protection. 

Thursday, 
Psalm XXXIII. 

God's Goodness. 

Friday. 
Psalm XXXIV. 

They are Blessed who trust in God. 

third "week. 
Monday. 
Job, Ch. XXVII. entire. 

The Excellency of Wisdom. 

Tuesday. 
Job, Ch. XXXVII. 1st to 24th verse. 

God to be feared for His Great Works. 

Wednesday. 
Job, Ch. XXXVIII. 1st to 28th, omittmg 8th verse. 
God convinceth Job of Ignorance. 

Thursday. 
1 Samuel, Ch. XVII. 1st to 12th verse. 
Goliath defies Israel. 

Shochoh = Sh5'koh. 

Ephes-dammim = E'phes-dam'mim. 
Philistines = Phi-lis'tines. 

14 



210 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Friday. 

1 Samuel, Ch. XVII. 12th to 32d verse. 
David comes to Camp. 

Ephrathite = Eph'rath-ite. 
Abinadab = A-bin'a-dab. 



FOURTH w:eek. 
Monday. 

1 Samuel, Ch. XVII. 32d to 55th, omitting 52d and 53d. 
David kills Goliath. 

Tuesday. 

1 Samuel, Ch. XVII. 55th to 17th verse of Ch. XVIII. 
Jonathan loves David. 

Wednesday. 

1 Samuel, Ch. XIX. 1st to 13th verse. 
David escapes from Saul. 

Thursday. 

1 Samuel, Ch. XX. 1st to 24th verse. 

Jonathan's Covenant with David. 
Naioth = Na'yoth. 

Friday. 

1 Samuel, Ch. XX. 24th verse to end, omitting last 
clause of 30th verse. 

Saul seeks to kill Jonathan. 



BIBLE READINGS. 211 

MAY. 

first week. 
Monday. 

2 Samuel, Ch. I. 1st to 13th verse. 
Tidings of Saul's Death. 

Amalekites = Am'a-lek-Ites. 

Tuesday. 

2 Samuel, Ch. I. 13th verse to end, 

David's Lamentation for Saul and Jonathan. 
Askelon = As'ke-lon. 

Wednesday. 

2 Samuel, Ch. XXII. 1st to 23d verse. 

David's Thanksgiving for Deliverance. 

Thursday. 

1 Chronicles, Ch. XXVII. 1st to 11th verse. 

David's Charge to Solomon. 

Friday. 

2 Chronicles, Ch. II. entu-e. 

The Building of the Temple. 

second "week. 

Monday. 

2 Chronicles, Ch. VI. 12th to 28th and 36th to end, 
Solomon's Prayer at the Dedication. 



212 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Tuesday. 
1 Kings, Ch. X. 1st to 24th verse. 
The Queen of Sheba's Visit. 

Wednesday. 
1 Kings, Ch. XVII. entire. 
Elijah fed by Ravens. 

Tishbite = Tish'blte. 
Cherith = Ke'rith. 
Zarephath = Zar'e-phath. 

Thursday. 
Proverbs, Ch. II. entire. 

Of the Excellency of Wisdom. 

Friday. 
Proverbs, Ch. III. 13th verse to end. 
Benefits of Wisdom. 

thibd "wieek. 
Monday. 
Proverbs, Ch. IV. 1st to 19th verse. 
Obedience exhorted. 

Tuesday. 
Proverbs, Ch. VI. 1st to 23d verse. 
Things Hateful to God. 

Wednesday. 
Proverbs, Ch. VIII. 1st to 21st and 32d to end- 
The Invitation of Wisdom. 



BIBLE REABmaS. 213 



Thursday. 



Ecclesiastes, Ch. I. entire. 

All Things below are Vain. 

Friday. 

Ecclesiastes, Ch. II. 1st to 18th verse. 
Vanity of Human Courses. 

fourth "week. 

Monday. 

Ecclesiastes, Ch. Ill entire. 
Changes in Man's Life. 

Tuesday. 

Ecclesiastes, Ch. IX. 1st to 7th and 11th to end. 
Like Things happen to Good and Bad. 

Wednesday. 

Ecclesiastes, Ch. XL omitting 5th verse. 
Death to be remembered in Life. 

Thursday. 

Ecclesiastes, Ch. XII. entire. 

The Creator to be remembered in Youth. 

Friday. 
Psalm XXXVII. 1st to 23d verse. 

The Happy State of the Godly. 



214 SCHOOL DEVIOFA 

fifth "week. 
Monday. 

Psalm XXXVII. 23d verse to end. 

The Happy State of the Godly. 

Tuesday. 
Psalm XL. entire. 

Benefit of Trusting in God. 

Wednesday. 
Psalm XLVI. entire. 

Confidence of the Church in God. 

Thursday. 
Psalm LI. entire. 

David's Prayer for Forgiveness. 

Friday. 
Psalm LXV. entire. 

Infinite Power and Goodness of God, 

JUNE. 

first week. 

Monday. 

Psahn XC. 

A Prayer of Moses. 

Tuesday. 
Psalm CHI. entire. 

Exhortation to Bless God. 



BIBLE READINGS. Sl5 



Wednesday. 

Daniel, Ch. III. 1st to 19th verse. 

Nebuchadnezzar sets np an Image. 
Shadrach = Shti'drach. 
Meshach = i\Ie'shak. 
Abed-nego = A-bed'ne-go. 

Thursday. 

Daniel, Ch. III. 19th verse to end. 
Cast into the Fiery Furnace. 

Friday. 
Daniel, Ch. IV. 1st to 19th verse. 
Nebuchadnezzar's Dream. 

Belshazzar = Bel-shaz'zar. 

second tveek. 
Monday. 
Daniel, Ch. IV. 19th verse to end. 
Daniel interprets the Dream. 

Tuesday. 
Daniel, Ch. V. 1st to 17th verse. 
Belshazzar's Impious Feast. 

Wednesday. 
Daniel, Ch. V. 17th verse to end. 

The Handwriting on the WaU. 

Thursday. 

Daniel, Ch. VI. 1st to 18th verse. 

Daniel cast into a Den of Lions. 
Darius = Da-ri'us. 



216 SCHOOL DEVICES. 

Friday. 
Daniel, Ch. VI. 18th verse to end. 
Daniel rescued. 

third week. 
Monday. 
Daniel, Ch. VII, Ist to I5th verse. 

The Vision of the Four Beasts. 

Tuesday. 
Daniel, Ch. VII. 15th verse to end, 

Daniel's Vision of God's Kingdom. 

Wednesday, 
Daniel, Ch. IX. 1st to 20th verse. 

Daniel's Confession and Prayer. 

Thursday. 
Daniel, Ch. IX. 20th verse to end. 
Of the Seventy Weeks. 

Friday. 
Daniel, Ch. X. entire. 

The Glorious Vision Seen, 

Hiddekel = Hid'de-kel. 

fourth week. 
Monday. 
Daniel, Ch. XII. entire. 
Final Deliverance. 



BIBLE READINGS. 217 

Tuesday. 
Psalm CXVI. entire. 

The Psalmist praises God. 

Wednesday. 
Psalm CXVIII. entire. 

Exhortation to praise God for His Mercies. 

Thursday. 
Psalms OXX., CXXI., CXXIII., and CXXV. 
Trust in God. 

Friday. 
Psalms CXXXVII. and CXXXVIII. 

Of the Captivity, and Truth of God's Word. 

JULY. 

first •week. • 
Monday. 
Proverbs, Ch. XX. 1st to 23d verse. 

Moral Excellencies and their Opposites. 

Tuesday. 

Proverbs, Ch. XXII. entire. 

Moral Excellencies and their Opposites. 

Wednesday. 
Proverbs. Ch. XXIV. entire. 

Moral Excellencies and their Opposites. 



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